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M1IIIIK 


THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 

OF  CALIFORNIA 

PRESENTED  BY 

PROF.  CHARLES  A.  KOFOID  AND 

MRS.  PRUDENCE  W.  KOFOID 


NEW  MEXICO, 

THE  LAND  OF  THE 
DELIGHT  MAKERS 


"SEE  AMERICA  FIRST"  SERIES 

Each  in  one  volume,  decorative  cover,  profusely  illustrated 


CALIFORNIA,   ROMANTIC  AND   BEAUTIFUL 

By  George  Wharton  James  $5.00 

OLD  PANAMA  AND  CASTILLO  DEL  ORO 

By  C.  L.  G.  Anderson  $5.00 

THREE  WONDERLANDS  OF  THE  AMERICAN 
WEST 

By  Thomas  D.  Murphy  $5.00 

ON   SUNSET   HIGHWAYS    (California) 

By  Thomas  D.  Murphy  $5.00 

TEXAS,  THE  MARVELLOUS 

By  Nevin  O.  Winter  $5.00 

ARIZONA,    THE    WONDERLAND 

By  George  Wharton  James  $5.00 

COLORADO:  THE  QUEEN  JEWEL  OF  THE 
ROCKIES 

By  Mae  Lacy  Baggs  $5.00 

OREGON,   THE   PICTURESQUE 

By  Thomas  D.  Murphy  $5.00 

FLORIDA,    THE    LAND    OF    ENCHANTMENT 

By  Nevin  O.  Winter  $5.00 

SUNSET  CANADA  (British  Columbia  and  Beyond) 

By  Archie  Bell  $5.00 

ALASKA,     OUR     BEAUTIFUL     NORTHLAND 
OF   OPPORTUNITY 

By  Agnes  Rush  Burr  $5.00 

HOUSEBOATING  ON  A  COLONIAL  WATER- 
WAY  (The  James  River,  Virginia) 
By  Frank  and  Cortelle  Hutchins  $2.50 

PANAMA  AND  THE  CANAL  TO-DAY 

By  Forbes  Lindsay  $3.00 

A  number  of  additional  volumes  are  in  preparation, 
including  Our  Wonderland  of  the  East,  Maine, 
Georgia,  The  Great  Lakes,  Louisiana,  etc.,  and  the 
"  See  America  First  "  Series  will  eventually  include 
the  whole  of  the  North  American  Continent. 


THE    PAGE    COMPANY 
53  Beacon  Street  Boston,  Mass. 


The  Water  Maiden  at  Laguna. 

(See  page  400.) 
From  a  Painting  made  expressly  for  the  author  by  Lucille  Joullin. 


NEW  MEXICO 

THE   LAND   OF  THE 
DELIGHT    MAKERS 


The  History  of  its  Ancient  Cliff  Dwellings  and  Pueb- 
los, Conquest  by  the  Spaniards,  Franciscan  Missions ; 
Personal  Accounts  of  the  Ceremonies,  Games,  Social 
Life  and  Industries  of  its  Indians ;  A  Description  of  its 
Climate,  Geology,  Flora  and  Birds,  its  Rivers  and 
Forests ;  A  Review  of  its  Rapid  Development,  Land- 
Reclamation  Projects  and  Educational  System;  with 
full  and  accurate  accounts  of  its  Progressive  Counties, 
Cities  and  Towns. 


BY 

GEORGE  WHARTON  JAMES 

AUTHOR  OF 

"California,    Romantic   and   Beautiful,"    "Arizona, 
the  Wonderland,"  etc. 

With  a  map  and  fifty-six  plates 
of  which  eight  are  in  color 


THE     P  A  G  E     CO  M  P  A  N  V 
BOSTON    *   PUBLISHERS 


Copyright,  1920, 
By  The  Page  Company 

All  rights  reserved 


First   Impression,   March,   1920 


THE    COLONIAL   PRESS 
C.    H.    SIMONDS   CO.,   BOSTON,    U.    S.    A. 


\J 


TO 

JESSE  WALTER  FEWKES 

CHIEF  OF  THE  BUREAU   OF 
AMERICAN    ETHNOLOGY 

With  whom  I  have  often  foregath- 
ered around  campfires  in  New  Mex- 
ico, surrounded  by  the  glamour  of 
ancient  peoples,  pre-historic  dwell- 
ings, aboriginal  art,  and  present  day 
Indians,  and  for  whose  kindly  inter- 
est in  my  humble  and  unpretentious 
literary  work  I  am  deeply  grateful. 


BY  WAY  OF  FOREWORD 

This  is  the  third  of  the  books  on  the  States  of  the 
American  Southwest  that  I  have  been  privileged  to  write 
for  this  See  America  First  series ;  California,  Romantic 
and  Beautiful,  being  the  first,  Arizona,,  the  Wonderland, 
the  second.  When  I  announced  this  third  volume,  my 
friends  asked :  "  You  surely  cannot  write  as  enthusi- 
astically about  New  Mexico  as  you  have  done  about  Cali- 
fornia and  Arizona?"  Yet  I  knew  I  should  find  it 
equally  easy.  It  was  here  that  I  came  over  thirty  years 
ago,  broken  in  health  and  spirits,  and  gained  the  renewing 
impulses  and  courage  that  ultimately  won  for  me  a  fuller 
enjoyment  of  life  than  I  had  ever  had  before.  With  my 
roll  of  bedding  I  was  ready  to  sleep  on  station-platform, 
when  deposited,  solitary  and  alone,  often  in  the  dead  of 
night,  from  the  irregularly  running  trains.  I  was  free 
to  wander  off  at  my  own  sweet  will,  making  my  bed  under 
pinion  tree,  cliff,  or  on  sandy  plain,  wherever  my  patient 
burro  might  bring  me. 

The  sleeping  out  of  doors  under  the  stars;  the  ineffable 
charm  of  the  cool,  delicious  nights  after  the  days  of  hot, 
scorching  sunshine;  the  baths  of  glorious  colour  that 
flooded  me,  body,  mind,  and  soul,  in  the  sunrises  and 
sunsets;  the  experiences  in  sand-storm,  wind-storm,  hail- 
storm, snow-storm,  and  lightning-storm ;  the  envelop- 
ment of  whirling  sand-spirals;  the  excitements  and  dan- 
gers of  fording  the  treacherous  quicksands  of  the 
streams ;  the  bathing  in  their  thick,  ruddy,  muddy  waters ; 
the  thrills  of  swimming  across  the  Rio  Grande,  when  it 


vi  By  Way  of  Foreword 

was  at  the  flood  and  its  banks  were  falling  in  with  "  vol- 
leying and  thundering ;  "  the  narrow  escapes  from  drown- 
ing in  the  wild  waters ;  the  fording  of  refractory  mules, 
horses  and  burros  across  its  turbulent  flood ;  the  discom- 
forts of  being  caught  in  storms  and  compelled  to  sleep 
out  in  the  snow,  or  rain,  or  —  worse  still  —  the  suffocat- 
ing clasp  of  the  hot  sand-storm;  the  near  swallowing-up 
of  our  wagon  in  unsuspected  beds  of  quicksand;  the 
watching  of  the  conversion  of  the  dry,  sandy  desert,  in  a 
few  hours,  into  a  flooded  area  through  which  we  plunged 
as  through  a  marsh;  the  seeing  of  a  roaring  torrent,  with 
wild,  dashing  breakers,  come  down  the  dry  washes  that 
had  appeared  as  if  water  had  been  strangers  to  their 
banks  ever  since  the  days  of  Noah's  flood ;  —  memory  re- 
counts them  so  rapidly  that  not  only  cannot  the  pen  write 
them ;  even  the  tongue  trips  and  plays  traitor  to  its  wonted 
fluency  when  it  attempts  to  recount  the  sights,  scenes,  ex- 
periences, and  moving  events  that  have  transpired,  and 
of  which  I  have  been  part,  in  New  Mexico  during  the  past 
thirty  years.  I  feel  that  I  can  truthfully  say  I  have  had 
a  thrill,  a  deep  emotion,  a  stirring  of  the  heart,  a  quick- 
ening of  the  pulses,  an  intellectual  enlargement,  a  scenic 
feast  and  a  spiritual  uplift  for  every  one  of  the  122,503 
square  miles  of  New  Mexico. 

Think  what  that  means ! 

If  Philip  James  Bailey  measured  life  aright  when  he 
wrote, 

We  live   in   deeds,   not  years;    in  thoughts,   not  breaths; 
In  feelings,  not  in  figures  on  a  dial, 

We  should   count   time   by   heart-throbs.    He   most   lives, 
Who  thinks  most,  feels  the  noblest,  acts  the  best, 

then  the  thoughtful  can  imagine  what  New  Mexico  has 
meant,  still  means,  to  me.     The  peace,  the  rest,  the  com- 


By  Way  of  Foreword vii 

fort,  the  joy,  that  have  flowed  into  me,  body  and  soul, 
on  its  mesas,  and  in  its  mountains,  its  canyons,  and 
valleys,  forests  and  deserts,  among  its  historic  scenes,  and 
when  fellowshipping  with  its  Indians,  its  solitudes  and  its 
wild,  rollicking  cowboys. 

When  I  was  so  young  in  life's  experiences  that  I  felt 
there  were  such  things  as  "  fates  that  pursue,"  and  life 
seemed  a  horrible  nightmare,  when  men  and  women 
shunned  me  for  that  which  I  was  not,  I  fled  them  and 
sought  refuge  in  the  solitudes  of  desert  and  canyon. 
There,  often  for  weeks  at  a  time,  I  saw  no  one  but  In- 
dians, or  the  birds  and  four-footed  wild  things  that 
neither  shunned  me,  nor  were  afraid  of  me.  There  I 
regained  poise  and  that  outlook  on  life  that  ultimately  has 
brought  peace,  serenity  and  joy.  Hence  I  love  New 
Mexico  with  undying  affection  that  those  merely  physi- 
cally born  within  her  borders  can  never  feel.  For  here 
my  real  spiritual  birth  occurred. 

Before,  having  ears  I  heard  not ;  eyes,  I  saw  not.  Now 
I  hear,  see,  taste,  feel  and  know,  somewhat,  and  am  On 
The  Way  to  larger,  fuller,  wider  experiences. 

Were  I  a  poet-rhapsodist  it  would  be  no  effort,  nay, 
it  would  be  a  joy  to  compose  a  rhapsody  of  thanksgiving 
to  this  so-called  Arid  Land.  No  lover  has  sung  the 
praises  of  his  mistress  with  more  exuberant  enthusiasm 
than  I  could  put,  honestly  and  sincerely,  into  my  song  of 
New  Mexico. 

To  the  average  newspaper-reading  American  the  name, 
New  Mexico,  brings  up  little  more  than  thoughts  of  a 
disagreeable  fight  in  Congress  about  two  would-be  states 
—  itself  and  Arizona.  They  see  President  Roosevelt 
urging  that  they  cease  striving  to  be  admitted  as  two 
states,  and  swinging  his  famous  big  stick  in  a  vigorous 
endeavour  to  reunite  them  as  they  used  to  be  in  Spanish 


viii By  Way  of  Foreword 

and  Mexican  days.  He  found  he  could  as  easily  ac- 
complish this  as  he  could  unite  oil  and  water,  or  Lloyd 
George  combine  into  one  coherent  political  state  the 
Catholics  and  the  Orangemen  of  Ireland. 

Yet  if  that  average  American  would  study  New  Mexico 
he  would  find  it  as  I  have  done,  a  country  of  many  sur- 
prises, wonders  and  delights.  It  is  a  land  of  sunshine, 
solitude,  silence,  serenity,  saints,  sinners,  salubrity,  sand, 
scoriae,  scorpions,  snakes,  seduction,  squabbles,  segrega- 
tion, shame  and  sacrifice.  It  is  a  natural  sanitarium,  a 
land  of  sandy  slopes  and  sapphire  skies,  a  land  for  the 
savant  and  the  saunterer,  the  serious  and  the  saucy,  a 
scenic  saturnalia  regno,  a  place  where  past,  present  and  fu- 
ture are  hand  in  hand,  where  antithesis  reigns  supreme, 
ancient  and  modern  civilizations  jog  elbows,  and  where 
the  present  sits  in  the  very  lap  of  the  prehistoric.  It  is  av 
land  where  the  religion  of  one  class  of  the  people  mani- 
fested itself  in  "  the  Delight-makers,"  and  of  another  in 
the  "  Penitentes ;  " —  the  former  people  whose  sole  duty 
as  religionists  was  to  make  people  laugh  by  their  jokes, 
jests,  and  clownish  acts;  the  latter  a  band  of  religious 
fanatics  who  whip  themselves  with  cruel  cactus-thongs 
until  blood  streams  down  their  bodies.  Both  classes  still 
exist  in  Nezv  Mexico  to-day.  It  is  a  land  of  rich  fertil- 
ity and  of  hopeless  barrenness;  where  irrigation  has  been 
practiced  for  centuries,  even  long  before  Columbus  sailed 
from  Spain  on  his  voyage  of  discovery,  and,  on  the  other 
hand,  of  sandy  plains,  rocky  mesas,  lava-strewn  areas 
where  foothold  even  is  denied  to  man.  Here  are  snowy 
peaks  which  companion  scintillant  stars  more  vivid  and 
larger  than  stars  known  east  of  the  Rockies,  and  which 
rest  on  mountain  shoulders  richly  clad  in  a  marvelously 
varied  silva,  under  whose  shade  silver  streams  dash  and 
sing,   splash  and  roar  on  their  way  to  be   lost   in   the 


By  Way  of  Foreword ix 

deserts  of  the  plain,  where  prickly  mesquite  and  buck- 
brush,  thorny  yucca  and  cactus,  and  pale,  bloodless  ver- 
dure eagerly  drink  up  such  few  drops  as  still  remain. 

I  have  purposely  given  much  space  to  the  strange  and 
superstitious  life  of  the  Indians  and  Mexicans  of  New 
Mexico,  yet  I  would  not  thereby  have  the  intelligent 
reader  gain  a  wrong  impression  of  the  modern  New 
Mexico.  These  things  do  exist,  exactly  as  the  many 
writers  quoted,  and  I,  myself,  state.  Yet  they  are  not  so 
obtrusive  and  insistent  as  to  demand  the  attention  of 
passing  travelers.  Indeed  the  converse  is  the  rule.  One 
might  live  in  New  Mexico  for  a  score  of  years  and 
never  see  them.  They  must  be  hunted  for,  waited  and 
watched  for,  if  one  wishes  to  see  them  in  their  native 
simplicity.  Even  then,  as  I  think  I  have  shown  clearly, 
not  every  person  has  the  wit  or  tact  to  enable  him  to 
remain  and  witness  what  is  about  to  transpire.  While 
Albuquerque  is  but  a  few  miles  from  villages  where  the 
Mexicans  are  penitentes,  and  believe  in  witchcraft,  and  a 
few  score  miles  from  Acoma,  Zuni  and  Isleta,  Indian 
villages  where  witches  are  hung  and  the  strange  kivna 
performances  are  still  carried  on,  Albuquerque  itself  is  as 
modern  and  progressive  as  Los  Angeles,  California;  Day- 
ton, Ohio,  or  Marshalltown,  Iowa.  It  is  these  surround- 
ing facts  that  give  the  piquancy,  uniqueness,  thrilling 
vividness  of  surprise  and  contrast  to  life  in  the  modern 
cities  of  New  Mexico. 

One  with  an  artistic  soul  has  called  New  Mexico  — 
not  inappropriately  —  the  land  of  High  Colours  and 
High  Places.  While  to  the  unknowing  the  colours  of 
the  paintings  reproduced  in  this  book  may  seem  bizarre 
and  exaggerated  I  must  assert,  in  sober  earnestness,  that 
they  no  more  than  suggest  the  reality.  Colours  abound, 
radiate,  vibrate,   throb,  delight,   entrance,  bewilder  and 


By  Way  of  Foreword 


confuse.  Some  who  see  them  for  the  first  time,  become 
bewildered  and  confused,  for,  coming  from  the  soft-toned 
east  and  middle  west,  they  can  scarce  believe  their  own 
eyes.  "  Striking  "  is  scarcely  a  forcible  enough  word. 
These  colours  sometimes  almost  stun  one  who  is  un- 
used to  them,  just  as  Wagner's,  Strauss's,  Brahms's, 
Rachmaninoff's  or  Dvorak's  music  at  first  stunned  those 
who  were  wedded  to  the  quieter,  gentler  forms. 

And  the  high  places  are  equally  fascinating  and  allur- 
ing. New  Mexico  is  the  land  of  lands  for  mesas,  fiat- 
topped  mountains,  and  elevated  plateaus.  Off  towards 
Arizona,  in  the  northwest,  are  towering  monuments 
and  buttes,  walls  and  castles,  domes  and  turrets  galore. 
The  Navahos  revel  in  them  and,  as  we  shall  see,  the 
Zunis  and  Acomas  either  live  or  used  to  live  upon  their 
level  wind-swept  areas.  Black  Mesa,  on  the  Rio  Grande, 
is  historic,  for  here  great  battles  were  fought  between 
Spaniard  and  Pueblo,  and  the  Mesa  Encantada  —  Kat- 
zimo  —  the  Enchanted  Mesa,  has  become  famous  the 
world  over  owing  to  the  controversies  that  have  raged 
about  it.  Tucumcari  is  named  after  a  rocky  mesa 
nearby,  which  used  to  be  one  of  the  retreating  places 
of  the  Apaches. 

New  Mexico  has  been  a  great  land  of  controversy,  a 
mental  battle  ground,  where  doughty  champions  of  many 
kinds  have  fought,  won,  or  been  worsted  in  the  defense 
of  their  ideas.  A  score  of  combatants  have  contended 
for  their  rendition  of  the  route  of  Coronado ;  almost  as 
many  have  fought  as  to  which  "  city  "  was  the  one  of 
the  "  Seven  Cities  of  Cibola  "  where  Stephen  the  negro 
lost  his  life.  We  have  argued,  and  possibly  will  con- 
tinue to  argue,  as  to  whether  the  Franciscans  really  bene- 
fited the  Indians  or  not;  and  in  recent  numbers  of  Old 
Santa  Fe  hot  and  bitter  controversy  has  raged  over  such 


By  Way  of  Foreword xi 

questions  as  to  whether  the  friars  had  complete  bibles 
or  not.  To  this  day  it  is  hard  to  tell  whether  General 
Carleton  was  efficient  or  not ;  and  who  can  sort  out,  from 
the  mass  of  conflicting  opinion,  whether  the  Apaches  and 
Navahos  were  "  fiends  incarnate  "  or  "  noble  aborigines 
who  have  been  fearfully  wronged  by  the  white  man." 
The  question  is  not  settled  yet  as  to  whether  the  Texas 
Expedition  to  Santa  Fe  in  1841  was  an  unwarrantable 
and  indefensible  attempt  to  seize  territory  from  a  friendly 
republic,  or  an  honest  attempt  to  meet  the  wishes  of  many 
people  of  New  Mexico  who  desired  to  sever  their  relation- 
ship with  Mexico.  Scores  of  pages  have  been  written  to 
prove  that  Cabeza  de  Vaca  went  into  New  Mexico,  and 
that  Santa  Fe  is  the  oldest  city  in  the  United  States. 
Even  the  location  of  the  room  in  El  Palacio,  in  Santa  Fe, 
in  which  Lew  Wallace  wrote  Ben  Hur  has  been  a  matter 
of  controversy,  and  the  loud  words  in  the  bitter  discussion 
as  to  whether  Katzimo, —  the  Enchanted  Mesa, —  was 
really  the  original  home  of  the  Acoma  Indians  still  send 
their  echoes  throughout  the  land.  Who  doesn't  know 
of  the  fierce  controversies  that  have  raged  as  to  the  origin 
and  final  disappearance  of  the  Cliff-Dwellers,  and  to  this 
day  it  is  not  settled  whether  we  are  justified  in  spelling 
Navaho  with  an  h  or  a  j.  Even  the  names  of  the  moun- 
tains have  been  the  subject  of  controversy,  and  some  of 
us  call  a  certain  mountain  San  Mateo, —  a  name  given 
centuries  ago, —  while  others  call  it  Mt.  Taylor,  after  the 
redoubtable  president  of  that  name,  while  those  who  be- 
lieve in  retaining  the  original  names  given  by  the  Indians, 
would  call  it  —  it  is  impossible  to  write  it  —  after  the 
tongue  of  the  Navaho.  "  Where  is  the  Gran  Quivera?" 
used  to  be  a  question  that  would  speedily  start  a  fight,  and 
who  owns  the  Sanctuario  —  the  old  Franciscan  Mission 
at  Chimayo  where  the  marvelous  happenings  of  Lourdes, 


xii By  Way  of  Foreword 

in  France,  are  said  to  be  duplicated, —  is  still  a  question  in 
the  minds  of  many.  Even  the  spelling  of  the  name  of  the 
city  of  Albuquerque  is  a  matter  of  controversy.  The  old 
records  show  that  the  name  of  the  duke,  after  whom  the 
city  was  named,  had  one  "  r  "  more  than  is  now  used,  and 
wrote  and  spelled  it  Alburquerque  —  as  does  Editor 
Twitchell  of  the  Old  Santa  Fe  magazine  and  the  best- 
posted  historian  of  the  state. 

To  this  day  the  Presbyterian,  Methodist  and  Congre- 
gationalist  will  assert  that  the  confessed  illiteracy  of  the 
New  Mexico  of  twenty,  fifty  and  more  years  ago  was 
owing  to  the  Catholic  priesthood's  deliberate  purpose  to 
keep  the  people  in  ignorance,  and  the  devout  Catholic  will 
heatedly  resent  the  imputation  and  defy  the  imputator. 
As  for  the  healthfulness,  salubrity,  social  advantages, 
business  qualifications  and  the  like  of  Santa  Fe  as  against 
those  of  Albuquerque  —  it  is  a  case  of  Frank  Stockton's 
Lady  and  the  Tiger,  and  the  outsider,  drawn  into  the 
argument,  rejects  one  horn  of  the  dilemma  to  be  impaled 
immediately  upon  the  other. 

And  these  are  a  few  only  of  the  controversies  that  have 
raged  in  New  Mexico,  and  in  some  of  which  I  have  glee- 
fully had  my  part.  It  is  contended  by  some  that  debate 
quickens  the  intellect  —  we  know  it  oftentimes  sharpens 
the  temper  —  and  if  this  be  true  then  we  might  augur 
well  for  the  intellectual  future  of  the  state. 

Few  states  in  the  Union  show  such  marvelous  con- 
trasts as  does  New  Mexico.  They  are  startling  and  dra- 
matic. For  instance,  one  coming  into  the  State  on  the 
Rock  Island  road  and  over  the  El  Paso  and  South  West- 
ern will  ride  for  scores  of  miles  over  an  elevated  plateau 
country,  almost  devoid  of  verdure,  heavily  covered  with 
snow  in  winter,  and  scorching  in  the  fierce  rays  of  the 
sun  in  summer.     There  are  few  vivifying  brooks,  creeks, 


By  Way  of  Foreword xiii 

or  rivers  and  little  or  no  grateful  shade  of  trees.  Except 
for  scant  pasturage  for  cattle  and  sheep  the  land  seems 
useless,  and  many  a  passenger  exclaims  "  God-forsaken !  " 
and,  pulling  down  the  car-shades,  seeks  forgetfulness  and 
the  more  rapid  passing  of  time  in  sleep. 

On  the  other  hand,  many  prominent  and  leading  artists 
of  the  American  world  find  in  Taos  and  its  environment 
one  of  the  most  beautiful  of  spots,  richly  alluring  and 
satisfying. 

Entering  from  the  northeast  on  the  Santa  Fe  an  en- 
tirely different  country  is  seen.  One  crosses  the  well- 
wooded  Raton  Mountains  before  he  descends  to  the 
plains.  A  somewhat  similar  experience  is  had  in  coming 
over  the  Denver  and  Rio  Grande  from  Colorado,  while 
in  the  south  coming  from  the  west,  the  El  Paso  and  South 
Western  and  Southern  Pacific  have  an  entirely  different 
kind  of  desert  country  to  reveal.  North  of  El  Paso,  out 
westward  from  Alamogordo,  are  miles  and  miles  of 
gypsum  sand,  which,  in  the  brilliant  sunlight,  appears  ex- 
actly like  snow;  while  out  from  Laguna,  by  McCarthy's, 
and  Bluewater,  in  the  region  of  Mount  San  Mateo,  and 
south  from  Grants  for  miles,  lie  the  forbidding  lava-beds 
that  look  like  the  spewings  of  some  fiery  region  of  black 
despair. 

As  early  as  1880  Bandelier  affirmed  the  superior  ad- 
vantages of  New  Mexico  as  a  field  for  archaeological 
and  ethnological  study.     He  said  : 

It  is  the  only  region  on  the  whole  continent  where  the  highest 
type  of  culture  obtained  by  its  aborigines  —  the  village  community  in 
stone  or  adobe  buildings  —  has  been  preserved  on  the  respective  ter- 
ritories of  the  tribes.  These  tribes  have  shrunk,  the  purity  of  their 
stock  has  been  affected,  their  customs  and  beliefs  encroached  upon  by 
civilization.  Still  enough  is  left  to  make  of  New  Mexico  the  ob- 
jective point  of  serious,  practical  archaeologists;  for,  besides  the 
living  Pueblo  Indians,  besides  the  numerous  ruins  of  their  past,  the 


xiv By  Way  of  Foreword 

very  history  of  the  changes  that  they  have  undergone  is  partly  in 
existence,  and  begins  three  hundred  and  forty  years  ago,  with 
Coronado's  adventurous  march. 

There  is  no  attempt  in  this  volume  to  give  a  complete 
history  of  New  Mexico.  That  were  too  extensive  an 
undertaking  and  the  field  is  already  well  occupied.  My 
purpose  is  to  give  in  readable  guise  a  broad  and  general 
idea  of  the  State  as  a  whole,  or,  at  least,  of  its  more  im- 
portant and  arresting  features. 

I  have  desired  to  suggest  to  the  interested  reader  the 
great  importance  New  Mexico  had  in  the  development  of 
the  Pacific  States.  Arizona  and  California,  originally, 
were  merely  side  issues  connected  with  this,  the  main  ob- 
ject of  the  explorer's  attention. 

The  history  of  New  Mexico  is  the  history  of  the  be- 
ginning of  civilization  in  the  western  part  of  the  United 
States.  It  is  of  such  vast  importance  that  two  large  vol- 
umes are  required  merely  to  catalogue  its  Spanish  Ar- 
chives. For,  as  its  name  implies,  it  was  regarded  as  a 
new  Mexico,  and  Coronado  and  his  conquistadores  fondly 
hoped  to  find  therein  the  gold,  silver  and  precious  things 
that  had  enriched  Cortes  in  Mexico,  Pizzaro  in  Peru,  and 
dazzled  the  old  world. 

How  strangely  small,  insignificant  and  even  absurd  are 
the  things  that  lure  men  to  change  the  course  of  history. 
It  was  a  myth,  a  will-o'-the-wisp,  that  allured  Coronado 
to  the  exploration  of  New  Mexico, —  a  mere  crazy  tale 
that  rumour  had  set  afoot  years  before ;  just  such  a  ru- 
mour as  sends  men  to-day  speeding  hither  and  yonder  to 
find  gold.  Mexico  and  Peru  were  the  "  Klondikes  "  that 
had  dazzled  the  eyes  of  all  Europe  by  their  prodigal  and 
fabulous  wealth.  The  stories  that  spread  over  Spain, 
Mexico  and  elsewhere  about  the  tons  of  golden  and  silver 
vessels,  the  abundance  of  precious  stones,  etc.,  of  Monte- 


By  Way  of  Foreword xv 

zuma  and  the  Incas  made  men  crazy  with  cupidity  and 
they  were  ready  and  eager  to  fly  in  any  direction  that 
suggested  a  duplication  of  the  experiences  of  the  envied 
Cortes  and  Pizarro. 

The  myth  that  started  the  explorers  into  New  Mexico 
was  that  "  somewhere  "  up  in  that  region  where  the  buf- 
falo roamed  were  seven  cities,  richer  in  gold  and  all  that 
man  lusted  after  than  anything  that  had  yet  been  dis- 
covered./ The  report  of  Marcos  de  Nizza,  who  was  sent 
out  to  verify  the  rumours  by  Mendoza,  the  Viceroy,  who 
hoped  to  outdo  Cortes  in  his  discoveries,  did  not  lessen  the 
excitement.  /iThe  soap-bubble  was  still  growing,  still  daz- 
zling with  its  brilliant  iridescence.  It  was  Coronado's 
expedition  that  pricked  it  and  its  disappearance  into  thin 
air  was  so  startlingly  rapid  that  it  took  the  Spaniards 
years  to  get  over  it.  It  practically  killed  Coronado  for  it 
may  truthfully  be  said  he  died  of  a  broken  heart,  a  dis- 
illusioned, disappointed  man./ 

All  that  the  Spaniards  found  were  seven  Indian  pueblos 
—  villages  built  of  adobe,  or  rude  pieces  of  rock  plastered 
over  with  adobe  —  whose  people  lived  in  aboriginal  sim- 
plicity, who  had  neither  gold,  silver,  precious  stones,  nor 
anything  of  great  value.  They  knew  nothing  of  mining, 
though  they  had  picked  up  a  little  turquoise,  and  a  few 
garnets  and  peridots. 

Refusing  to  believe  that  his  bubble  had  burst  and  dis- 
appeared so  utterly,  Coronado  pushed  his  way  into  Kan- 
sas. There,  convinced  against  his  will,  he  turned  back, 
and  at  that  moment  to  the  great  world  of  endeavour  he 
practically  died. 

Myths  of  fabulous  treasure,  however,  die  hard,  and  in 
the  hope  that  the  country  would  still  justify  the  first 
stories  told  of  it  later  explorers  came  —  again  to  be  dis- 
appointed.    A  new  element,  by  now,  began  to  assert  itself. 


xvi By  Way  of  Foreword 

This  was  an  age  of  religious  zeal  and  activity  never  be- 
fore or  since  surpassed.  The  monkish  orders  of  Spain 
were  as  frenzied  in  their  zeal  to  save  the  souls  of  the 
heathen  aborigines  as  the  explorers  were  to  get  gold. 
Hence  with  all  bands  of  the  latter  that  started  out  on  their 
gold  hunts  came  friars  —  Franciscan,  Jesuit,  Carmelite, 
Dominican  —  eager  to  gain  the  priceless  reward  of  the 
spirit,  ambitious  to  win  the  approval  of  their  God  by  lead- 
ing the  souls  of  the  natives  into  the  fold  of  the  church. 
Then  began  another  invasion  —  that  of  the  mission- 
aries. Churches,  convents,  monasteries  sprang  up  like 
magic  on  every  hand.  The  fervour  of  these  men  seems 
incredible.  Eager  to  become  martyrs  they  dared  death 
daily  by  forcing  their  religion  upon  jealous  natives,  and 
such  was  their  fiery  energy  and  dauntless  courage  that 
they  succeeded  in  convincing  the  Indians  —  against  their 
will  and  desire  —  that  they  must  help  build  the  temples 
of  worship  desired  by  the  newcomers.  This  was  the 
period  when  the  Mission  Churches  of  New  Mexico  arose, 
ioo  to  150  years  earlier  than  those  of  California.  Simul- 
taneously villas  or  towns  were  started  —  San  Gabriel, 
Santa  Fe,  Albuquerque, —  for  the  Spanish  and  Mexican 
colonists,  who  still  clung  to  the  old  tradition  or  myth  and 
fondly  hoped  they  might  find  the  wealth  their  predecessors 
doubtless  had  overlooked.  Between  them  —  friars  and 
colonists  —  they  succeeded  in  arousing  in  the  hearts  of 
the  Indians  a  hatred  so  intense,  fiery  and  unsuppressible 
that  the  Pueblo  Rebellion  of  1680  ensued  and  violent 
death  stalked  through  the  land.  On  that  dread  day  of 
Santana,  1680,  the  Indians,  led  by  the  zealous  patriot, 
Pope,  arose  almost  to  a  man  —  and  woman,  for  the 
women  shared  in  this  bitter  hatred  —  and  fell  upon  every 
"  long-gown,"  every  white  man  and  woman  they  could 
reach. 


By  Way  of  Foreword xvii 

Scores  were  slain,  Santa  Fe  was  besieged  and  Governor 
Otermin,  with  a  band  of  clinging,  terrified  refugees,  fear- 
fully fled  down  the  Rio  Grande  to  near  where  El  Paso 
now  stands  and  breathlessly  waited  for  help. 

It  came  in  time,  and  under  Diego  de  Vargas  the  In- 
dians were  first  cajoled  and  then  whipped  into  submis- 
sion. From  that  time,  until  the  Mexicans  asserted  their 
independence,  the  Pueblos  of  New  Mexico  were  regarded 
as  loyal  to  Spain  —  lukewarm,  perhaps,  yet  not  actively 
hostile,  transferring  their  allegiance  in  perfunctory  fash- 
ion to  the  republic  of  Mexico,  and,  on  the  arrival  of 
Kearny,  in  1846,  to  the  United  States. 

It  must  be  noted,  however,  that  there  were  other  In- 
dians, besides  the  Pueblos,  such  as  the  Apaches  and 
Navahos,  who  were  not  inclined  to  accept  the  sovereignty 
of  Spain,  and  who  looked  with  a  greater  or  lesser  degree 
of  contempt  and  scorn  upon  all  attempts  of  the  friars  to 
change  their  religion.  Their  attitude  plainly  was  that  of 
the  more  modern  skeptic  who,  on  being  informed  that 
unless  he  believed  what  the  church  taught,  would  as- 
suredly be  damned,  promptly  replied  that  "  he  would  be 
damned  if  he  did."  They  were  insolent,  defiant,  incor- 
rigible and  unconquerable.  Missionaries  and  colonists 
had  brought  into  the  land  horses,  cows,  sheep  and  innu- 
merable seeds  for  fruit  trees,  vegetables  and  grains. 
With  a  speedy  appreciation  of  the  value  of  the  former 
these  wily  nomads  began  to  levy  unauthorized  contribu- 
tions upon  the  flocks  and  herds  of  the  colonists  and  those 
of  the  Indians  who  had  become  Christianized  and  counted 
as  "the  faithful."  A  state  of  perpetual  war,  therefore, 
might  be  said  to  exist,  the  Apaches,  Navahos  and  a  few 
of  the  tribes  swooping  down  upon  the  Spaniards  and 
Mexicans  and  their  possessions,  in  season  and  out,  and 
being  in  turn  slain  singly  or  massacred  in  droves,  when- 


xviii By  Way  of  Foreword 

ever  the  tide  of  fortune  turned  in  favour  of  the  whites. 

It  was  during  these  fighting  days  that  the  Navaho 
woman  learned  the  art  of  blanket-weaving  —  which  she 
had  always  known  in  a  very  crude  and  primitive  fashion 
—  with  the  wool  from  the  sheep  of  the  Spaniard,  and 
to  this  fact,  combined  with  the  Navaho  man's  discovery 
that  roast  sheep  and  ox  were  more  satisfying  than  the 
flesh  of  rabbits  and  the  like,  is  undoubtedly  owing  most 
of  the  depredations  committed  by  the  nomad  Indians 
upon  the  Mexicans. 

In  these  conflicts  considerable  skill  and  generalship 
often  were  displayed,  and  thus  came  into  existence  a  mass 
of  stories,  told  with  great  gusto  around  the  herders'  and 
cowboys'  campfires,  and  before  the  open  fire-places  of  the 
Mexican  homes,  of  deeds  daring  and  thrilling,  of  narrow 
escapes  and  bloody  achievements,  of  which  later  writers 
have  made  good  use. 

In  these  Spanish  and  Mexican  days,  too,  great  grants 
of  land  were  given  to  Americans  and  other  foreigners  as 
well  as  those  who  used  the  Castilian  speech  (pure  or  other- 
wise). These  were  afterwards  the  subject  of  much 
harassing  legislation,  mainly  because  of  a  misunderstand- 
ing as  to  the  reasons,  etc.,  the  real  motive,  behind  the 
grants.  It  is  well  that  this  motive  be  understood,  for, 
while  it  was  just,  potent,  and  reasonable  in  that  day,  it 
does  not  exist  in  ours,  and,  therefore,  many  wise  people 
of  to-day  argue  it  never  did  exist. 

No  intelligent  reader  of  history  can  forget  that  when 
the  Spaniards  took  New  Mexico  land  was  of  little  value. 
They  had  found  a  new  world  many  scores  of  times  larger 
than  the  whole  of  that  part  of  the  old  world  claimed  by 
them.  They  could  neither  use  nor  protect  it.  Two  hun- 
dred years  later  when  the  Mexicans  drove  out  the  Span- 
iards the  new  owners  were  confronted  with  the  same 


By  Way  of  Foreword xix 

problems.  They  wanted  to  retain  some  kind  of  hold  upon 
it,  yet  foes  without  caused  fears  within,  especially  as 
there  were  foes  within  as  well  as  without.  Land,  par- 
ticularly when  it  was  upon  the  Mexican  frontier  adjoin- 
ing territory  of  the  United  States,  was  always  adjudged 
insecure.  The  Mexicans  knew  the  land-grabbing,  coun- 
try-swallowing habits  of  the  aggressive  Anglo-Saxon, 
hence  they  felt  that  if,  by  granting  such  land  to  men  who 
would  use  and  hold  it  against  all  comers,  they  would  not 
only  retain  their  sovereignty  over  the  land,  but  would 
place  an  effective  buffer  between  themselves  and  a  people 
whom  they  strongly  mistrusted.  Then,  too,  Navahos, 
Apaches,  Utes,  Comanches  and  others,  were  ever  war- 
ring upon  them,  and  it  was  a  help  and  a  comfort  to  feel 
that  some  redoubtable  Indian  fighter  was  at  hand  to  arrest 
these  aggressions  and  occasionally  "  take  a  rise  "  out  of 
the  aggressors.  It  can  be  seen,  therefore,  that  it  was  a 
wise  policy  on  the  part  of  the  Mexican  Government  to 
make  these  grants.  They  led  to  the  founding  of  colonies, 
to  the  extension  of  the  boundaries  of  civilization,  and  set 
up  barriers  against  the  inroads  of  the  savages  and  the 
encroachments  of  their  enterprising  and  active  neighbours 
across  the  border.  What  to  them  meant  a  few  acres,  a 
few  thousands,  a  few  hundreds  of  thousands  of  acres,  of 
land  ?  They  were  glad  to  give  it  to  any  in  whose  loyalty 
and  courage  they  had  belief  that  they  would  help  to  hold 
it.  And,  when  the  Mexican  Government  ceded  New 
Mexico  and  California  to  the  United  States,  it  must  never 
be  forgotten,  as  Frank  Springer  eloquently  and  forcefully 
argued  before  the  United  States  Supreme  Court,  that  the 
Mexican  Government  expressly  stipulated  that  its  previ- 
ous grants  of  land  should  be  acknowledged  and  protected. 
Of  course  the  seizing  of  the  country  by  General  Stephen 
Kearny,  in  1846,  caused  considerable  excitement,  though 


xx By  Way  of  Foreword 

there  was  practically  little  bloodshed  consequent  upon  the 
act.  Kearny's  arrest  of  Fremont,  later,  in  California, 
produced  an  immensely  greater  ripple  in  American 
thought  than  did  the  annexation  of  the  whole  of  New 
Mexico  (including  what  is  now  Arizona). 

In  one  of  the  chapters  I  have  endeavoured  to  show  what 
a  wonderful  "  playground "  New  Mexico  is  for  the 
United  States.  But  I  have  merely  touched  the  high  lights 
of  the  subject,  as  will  be  apparent  to  all  who  know  the 
country.  Yet  I  cannot  too  strongly  commend  this  phase 
of  the  subject  to  those  who  are  looking  for  change,  to 
whom  doctors  say :  "  Travel ;  go  somewhere  for  a 
change."  There  is  no  place  in  the  world  that  will  better 
repay  a  serious  visit  of  a  few  months  spent  in  wandering 
up  and  down  its  square  miles.  For  what  is  change  of 
air,  change  of  scene,  change  of  work?  Few  people  ana- 
lyze the  reason  why  these  changes  are  so  beneficial.  Is 
it  not  that  they  bring  a  change  of  thought,  of  mental  atti- 
tude, of  outlook?  The  man  whose  every  moment  has 
been  devoted  to  his  business,  his  clerks,  his  store,  his 
office,  his  factory,  his  mill,  is  now  away  from  them.  He 
sees  birds  and  bees,  buds  and  blossoms,  mountains  and 
canyons,  rushing,  roaring  rivers,  tuneful  cataracts,  dash- 
ing sprays,  whirling  rapids,  fleecy  clouds  in  the  bluest  of 
blue  skies,  men  and  women  tramping  —  hiking  they  now 
call  it  —  up  trails,  or  riding  horse-  or  burro-back  for  far- 
away mountain  peaks.  He  is  out  in  the  sun,  in  the  fresh 
air.  He  puts  on  his  old  clothes,  or  a  suit  of  khaki  bought 
for  the  occasion,  and  feels  the  freedom  of  a  soft  shirt, 
and  of  a  collar  that  has  none  of  the  compression  of  a 
harness.  He  goes  out  bareheaded,  and  becomes  as  brown 
as  a  berry,  new  muscles  come  into  play;  he  breathes 
deeper  than  he  has  done  for  years.  At  first  it  makes  him 
dizzy,  and  tired,  but  he  eats  like  a  hired  man  and  sleeps 


By  Way  of  Foreword xxi 

like  a  baby,  rolls  in  the  dirt  like  a  tramp  and  looks  as 
healthy  and  rugged  as  a  hobo.  His  brain  becomes  clearer 
and  he  thinks  better.  He  loses  his  headache  and  back- 
ache, and  that  old  stomach  trouble  that  has  worried  him 
for  years  disappears.  His  liver  no  longer  gives  him 
twinges  and  those  stiff  joints  begin  to  work  easier. 

He  drinks  the  pure  mountain  water  by  the  gallon,  and 
that  yellow  tinge  in  the  eyes  and  on  his  skin  disappears. 
His  breath  becomes  pure;  he  no  longer  wakes  up  in  the 
morning  with  a  dark  brown  taste  in  his  mouth,  and  his 
friends,  seeing  him  walk,  comment  on  his  rejuvenated 
appearance. 

These,  and  more,  far  more,  are  the  physical  changes 
discernible  and  apparent  in  him  as  a  month  is  passed 
by,  and  the  longer  he  stays  the  better  he  feels. 

But  these  changes  are  by  no  means  the  most  important. 
His  mind  becomes  as  clarified  with  the  scrubbing  of  the 
scenery,  as  his  lungs  do  with  the  pure  air.  His  sensi- 
bilities tingle  and  dance  with  the  invigoration  of  the 
scenic  tonics  as  his  blood  dances  with  the  increased  sup- 
ply of  oxygen.  His  whole  mentality  becomes  saner,  more 
controlled,  less  under  the  dominion  of  things  outside  of 
him,  just  as  his  nerves  have  come  under  his  own  control. 
New  and  vivid  mental  impressions  of  joy,  of  health,  of 
vigour,  of  vim  fill  his  hours  with  optimism;  his  whole 
inner  nature  is  stirred,  moved,  refreshed,  shaken-up,  re- 
stored.    With  Edwin  Markham  he  shouts  in  exuberant 


joy: 


I  ride  on  mountain  tops,  I  ride; 

I  have  found  my  life  and  am  satisfied. 


No  one  knows  better  than  I  the  inadequacy  of  my 
sketchy  picturing  of  this  great  State  in  all  its  alluring 
phases.     If,  however,  I  can  lead  a  few  people  of  intelli- 


XX11 


By  Way  of  Foreword 


gence  each  year  to  break  loose  from  the  traditional  and 
conventional  routes  of  travel  and  give  themselves  the 
joy  of  roughing  it  in  New  Mexico,  I  shall  receive  such 
gratitude  from  them  —  even  though  it  be  only  by  wire- 
less —  that  I  shall  be  fully  satisfied. 


^^^^ 


Pasadena,  California,  1920. 


CONTENTS 


[AFTER  PAGE 

By  Way  of  Foreword  v 
I.     Why     "  The     Land    of    the    Delight 

Makers  "......  i 

II.     The  Explorations  and  Subjugations  of 

New  Mexico 8 

III.  The  Homeric  Epic  of  New  Mexico         .  20 

IV.  The  Great  Pueblo  Rebellion  of  1680    .  24 
V.     The  World's  Greatest  Autograph  Al- 
bum, Inscription  Rock       ...  34 

VI.     My  Adventures  at  Zuni        .          .  51 

VII.     Among  the  Witches     ....  80 

VIII.     Hunting  with  Indians  in  New  Mexico  98 

IX.     Acoma,  the  City  of  the  Cliffs     .          .  124 

X.     Katzimo  —  The  Enchanted  Mesa         .  178 

XI.     The  Arts  and  Industries  of  the  Indians  186 

XII.     The  Religion  of  the  Indians         .          .  195 

XIII.  Indian  Songs  and  Music       .          .          .  220 

XIV.  The     Native    Architecture     of     New 

Mexico       ......  244 

XV.     The  Pueblo  of  Taos     ....  257 

XVI.     The  Antiquities  of  New  Mexico.     Its 
Ancient     Dwellings — Its     Mission 

Churches           .....  266 

XVII.     The  American  Passion  Play         .         .  269 

XVIII.     The  Mountains  of  New  Mexico    .          .  302 

XIX.     The  National  Forests  of  New  Mexico  322 

XX.     The  Bird  Life  of  New  Mexico     .          .  334 

XXI.     The  Flora  of  New  Mexico  .          .         .  340 

xxiii 


XXIV 


Contents 


CHAPTER 

XXII.     The   Influence  of   New    Mexico   upon 
Literature  .... 

XXIII.  The   Influence  of   New    Mexico  upon 

Art  :  The  Taos  Society  of  Artists 

XXIV.  Ancient  and  Modern  Methods  of  See 

ing  New  Mexico 
XXV.     New    Mexico    as    the    Nation's    Play 
ground        ..... 
XXVI.     Education  in  New  Mexico     . 
XXVII.     The  University  and  Special  Schools  of 

New  Mexico      .... 
XXVIII.     The  Art  Museum  of  Santa  Fe 
XXIX.     Irrigation  in  New  Mexico    . 
XXX.     Albuquerque,  The  Commercial  Metrop 

olis  of  New  Mexico  . 
XXXI.     The  Population  of  New  Mexico  . 
Bibliography  .... 

Index  ..... 


347 
373 
403 

409 
414 

421 
428 

444 

45° 
458 
461 

463 


LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS 


PAGE 

The   Water  Maiden  at  Laguna   (In  full  color). 

(See  page  400)  ....  Frontispiece 

The  Pueblo  of  Isleta    ......       xi 

MAP  OF  NEW  MEXICO 1 

A  Carlsbad  Home  ......         5 

The  Old  Franciscan  Mission  at  the  Pueblo  of 

Zia  (In  full  color)      ......        16 

The  Old  Mexican  Ovens  at  San  Lorenzo     .         .       31 
El  Morro — Inscription  Rock       ....       34 

The  Pueblo  of  Zuni  from  across  the  River    .         .       56 
Man  and  Boy,  Zuni       ......       59 

We-wha,  the  remarkable  Zuni   character  who 

visited  President  Cleveland  ....  63 
We-wha  at  the  Grinding  Trough  in  her  house 

at  Zuni      ........       64 

Zuni  Dick  and  his  Brother  making  shell  bead 

necklaces  .......       68 

The  Pillars  known  as  "  The  Caique's  Son  and 

Daughter,"  on  Taiyoallane,  near  Zuni  .  .  J2 
Zuni  Nick,  soon  after  he  was  tried  as  a  Wizard  86 
Melita,   the   day   after    she    was    rescued    from 

Hanging  as  a  witch  .....       92 

Pueblo  Indian,  with  throwing  stick,  ready  for  a 

Rabbit  Hunt      .......       98 

From  the  author's  Collection  of  We-ma-he,  or 

Prey  Fetiches  .         .  .  .         .  .         .110 

The  New  Mexico  Desert  Region  in  Winter  (In 

full  color) 113 

XXV 


xxvi  List  of  Illustrations 


PAGE 


The  Cliffs  of  Acoma,  showing  the  Old  Francis- 
can Mission       .......     126 

A  Street  in  Acoma       ......     130 

The  Governor  of  Laguna     .         .         .         .  137 

Interior  of  the  Old  Franciscan  Mission  at  Acoma     154 
The  Pueblo  of  Laguna         .....     160 

Dance  at  the  Fiesta  de  San  Esteban  at  Acoma 
(In  full  color)     .  .  .  .  .  .  .170 

Katzimo,    or    The    Enchanted    Mesa,    from    the 
North        ........     178 

Pueblo  Indians  Making  Pottery  .         .         .     192 

Pahos,  or  Prayer  Sticks       .....     207 

Manuelito,  the  Last  Great  Navaho  Chief    .         .     214 
Preparing  for  a  Dance,  Zuni       ....     225 

A  Dance  at  Laguna      ......     239 

The  Old  Mission  Church  at  Zuni       .         .         .     245 
The    Mission    Church    at   Cochiti,   before,   and 
after,   "  Restoration  ".....     250 

"  Christ  on  the  Cross,"  in  the  Morada  at  Taos    .     262 
The  Penitente  Cross  at  San  Mateo     .         .         .     274 
The   Self-whipping   of  the   New    Mexico   Peni- 
tentes  (In  full  color)  .....     282 

The  Author  attempting  to  carry  a  typical  Peni- 
tente Cross       .......     288 

The  Carreta  delMuerto  used  by  the  Penitentes 
at  Taos      ........     292 

A  Summer  Camp  in  the  Santa  Fe  National  Forest    307 
San  Mateo  Mountain  —  also  called  Mt.  Taylor    310 
Bear  Canyon,  in  the  Sandias      .         .         .         .318 

A  Goat  Ranch  in  the  Lincoln  National  Forest    328 

Santa  Fe  Lake,  Santa  Fe  National  Forest 

A  New  Mexico  Wild  Turkey 

The  Guardian  of  the  Desert  (In  full  color) 

Palo  Verde  —  Mesquite  —  Desert  Flora 

A  New  Mexico  "  Vocalist  "  . 

The  "  Ocatillo  "  .        • . 


332 
335 
340 

344 
368 

394 


List  of  Illustrations  xxvii 


The  Sentinels  of  the  Desert  —  The  Mirage  — 

The  Snowy  Range     ..... 
The  Pepper  Stringers  (In  full  color) 
A  Pueblo  Indian  Funeral  Procession  at  Isleta    400 


Quaken  Aspen  Grove,  Cloudcroft 

Indian  School,  Laguna        .... 

"  The  Cathedral  of  the  Desert  " :  Museum  and 

Auditorium,  Santa  Fe  (In  full  color) 
Elephant  Butte  Dam  ..... 
Section  of  the  Main  Canal,  Carlsbad  Project 
Church  of  San  Felipe  de  Neri 


PAGE 
396 

399 


412 
418 

428 
446 
448 
453 


An  Albuquerque  Residential  Street   .         ..        i9.    456 


n 


n 


NEW  MEXICO,  THE  LAND  OF 
THE  DELIGHT  MAKERS 


CHAPTER  I 

WHY    "  THE    LAND   OF   THE   DELIGHT    MAKERS  " 

To  rightly  choose  a  title  for  any  book  is  generally  a 
work  of  difficulty,  of  much  earnest  search  and  deep  cogi- 
tation. Yet  in  this  case  the  title  came  readily.  One  of 
the  most  fascinating  books  ever  written  by  a  deeply  seri- 
ous student  of  Archaeology  is  the  novel  of  Adolf  Bande- 
lier  —  The  Delight  Makers.  In  it  he  builds  up  for  us, — 
from  his  intimate  knowledge  of  the  documentary  history, 
the  wealth  of  gathered  tradition,  and  his  familiarity  with 
the  life  of  their  immediate  descendants, —  the  social,  re- 
ligious, and  tribal  life  of  the  prehistoric  cliff-dwellers,  the 
Tyuonyi  —  that  strange  race,  which  much  conjecture  and 
guesswork  has  involved  in  clouds  of  deep  and  impene- 
trable mystery.  Known  to  the  Spanish  population  as  the 
Rito  do  los  Frijoles,  it  was  left  for  Bandelier  to  discover 
to  the  world  the  wealth  of  cliff-dwellings  its  canyon  walls 
contained.  They  are  now  visited  annually  by  thousands. 
To  teach  the  unscientific  world  the  significance  of  these 
cliff-dwellings  was  Bandelier's  intense  desire,  and  to  ac- 
complish this  he  hit  upon  the  plan  of  the  popular  novel. 
Doubtless  had  he  been  alive  to-day  he  would  have  been 

"  unscientific  "  enough  —  in  the  profundity  of  his  insight 

l 


NEW  MEXICO,  THE  LAND  OF 
THE  DELIGHT  MAKERS 


CHAPTER  I 

WHY    "  THE    LAND    OF   THE   DELIGHT    MAKERS  " 

To  rightly  choose  a  title  for  any  book  is  generally  a 
work  of  difficulty,  of  much  earnest  search  and  deep  cogi- 
tation. Yet  in  this  case  the  title  came  readily.  One  of 
the  most  fascinating  books  ever  written  by  a  deeply  seri- 
ous student  of  Archaeology  is  the  novel  of  Adolf  Bande- 
lier —  The  Delight  Makers.  In  it  he  builds  up  for  us, — 
from  his  intimate  knowledge  of  the  documentary  history, 
the  wealth  of  gathered  tradition,  and  his  familiarity  with 
the  life  of  their  immediate  descendants, —  the  social,  re- 
ligious, and  tribal  life  of  the  prehistoric  cliff-dwellers,  the 
Tyuonyi  —  that  strange  race,  which  much  conjecture  and 
guesswork  has  involved  in  clouds  of  deep  and  impene- 
trable mystery.  Known  to  the  Spanish  population  as  the 
Rito  do  los  Frijoles,  it  was  left  for  Bandelier  to  discover 
to  the  world  the  wealth  of  cliff-dwellings  its  canyon  walls 
contained.  They  are  now  visited  annually  by  thousands. 
To  teach  the  unscientific  world  the  significance  of  these 
cliff-dwellings  was  Bandelier's  intense  desire,  and  to  ac- 
complish this  he  hit  upon  the  plan  of  the  popular  novel. 
Doubtless  had  he  been  alive  to-day  he  would  have  been 
"  unscientific  "  enough  —  in  the  profundity  of  his  insight 


2     New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

into  human  nature  —  to  use  "  movies  "  for  the  same  pur- 
pose.    Here  is  his  own  statement : 

I  was  prompted  to  perform  the  work  by  a  conviction  that,  however 
scientific  works  may  tell  the  truth  about  the  Indians  they  exercise 
always  a  limited  influence  upon  the  general  public ;  and  to  that 
public,  in  our  country  as  well  as  abroad  the  Indian  has  remained  as 
good  as  unknown.  By  clothing  sober  facts  in  the  garb  of  romance,  I 
have  hoped  to  make  the  "  Truth  about  the  Pueblo  Indians "  more 
accessible  and  perhaps  more  acceptable  to  the  public  in  general. 

He  called  his  novel  The  Delight  Makers  from  the 
clowns  who  performed  their  antics  and  buffoonery  for 
the  delectation  of  the  prehistoric  dwellers  in  the  cliffs. 
These  delight-makers  were  of  the  oldest  inhabitants,  but, 
also,  they  were  prophetic  of  the  later  comers  to  New 
Mexico,  and  more  particularly  of  the  land  itself.  Hun- 
dreds of  thousands  of  students  of  the  life  of  the  past  have 
visited,  and  will  visit,  New  Mexico  because  of  its  wealth 
of  archccologic  and  ethnologic  material.  Those  who  are 
interested  in  the  home-building  Pueblo  Indians,  their 
quaint  legends,  their  pathetic  struggles  to  retain  their  an- 
cient religion,  their  slow  demoralization  by  contact  with 
the  whites,  will  go  in  ever  increasing  numbers  to  their 
New  Mexico  homes  so  long  as  a  spark  of  the  ancient 
civilization  and  a  handful  of  its  representatives  remain. 
While  scenically  New  Mexico  lost  its  most  wonderful  part 
when  Arizona  was  sliced  from  its  western  side,  it  still 
retains  enough  to  be  a  peculiar  wonderland  within  itself. 
Acoma  is  still  the  incomparable  cliff-home  of  the  sky ; 
Zuni,  with  its  Thunder  Mountain,  and  its  archaic  people, 
the  lodestone  to  the  seeker  after  the  quaint  and  curious, 
as  well  as  the  picturesque  and  sublime.  No  lava-fields  in 
the  world  can  surpass  those  viewed  from  the  summit  of 
Mt.  San  Mateo  and  the  cliffs  of  Cibolleta.  There  is  but 
one  Inscription  Rock  in  the  world.     The  Navaho  Indians 


"  The  Land  of  the  Delight  Makers  "       3 

are  equally  interesting  with  any  other  tribe  in  existence 
and  their  Fire  Dance,  their  Ship-Rock,  Canyon  de  Chelly, 
and  a  thousand  and  one  scenic  spots  on  their  reservation 
await  the  coming  of  the  hundreds  of  thousands  who  will 
ultimately  visit  them.  The  Pueblos  of  the  Rio  Grande 
still  stand  to  excite  the  imagination  of  other  visitors  as 
they  did  that  of  Marah  Ellis  Ryan,  who  there  wrote  her 
Flute  of  the  Gods.  The  old  Spanish  palace  and  the  Mis- 
sion Church  of  San  Miguel,  in  Santa  Fe,  remain,  with 
their  stories  of  the  Pueblo  uprising  of  1680,  and  Ben  Hur 
and  Lew  Wallace.  Taos,  with  its  great  community 
houses,  still  remains  the  northernmost  outpost  to  which 
Pueblo  Indian  civilization  reached.  The  Enchanted 
Mesa  —  Katzimo  —  still  stands  in  the  pure  blue  of  the 
New  Mexico  sky,  luring  visitors  to  seek  to  gain  its  sum- 
mit as  did  Professor  William  Libbey,  of  Princeton,  and 
wage  a  wordy  war  about  it  as  did  the  climber  and  the 
redoubtable  Teuton  of  Western  Letters  —  Lummis  —  as 
to  whether  it  was  really  the  home  of  the  ancient  Acoma. 
Villegra's  epic  poem,  giving  the  history  in  Spanish  verse 
of  the  conquest  of  the  cliff-city  of  Acoma  by  Zaldivar, 
will  still  thrill  thousands  —  hundreds  of  thousands  —  as 
the  years  go  by,  with  its  vivid  word  pictures  of  the  dread- 
ful fight  on  the  penyol  height.  The  penitentes  still  exist 
and  in  their  moradas  perform  those  strange  rites  that  re- 
call the  days  of  our  Lord's  passion,  and  then  come  out 
into  the  open,  and  upon  their  small  Calvarios,  reenact  the 
scene  of  the  dire  tragedy  of  Calvary  of  two  thousand 
years  ago,  after  flagellating  themselves  until  blood 
streams  down  their  lacerated  backs.  The  Spanish  Mis- 
sion churches  of  New  Mexico  still  remain,  some  of  them 
one  hundred  and  fifty  years  older  than  those  of  Califor- 
nia, and  while  not  so  pleasing  and  striking  architecturally, 
they  confessedly  possess  far  more  historic  interest. 


4     New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

And  so  I  might  ramble  on  by  the  hour,  just  as  the 
whim  seizes,  recalling  the  delight-making  reminiscences 
that  occur  as  I  think  casually  of  the  New  Mexico  over 
which  I  have  traveled  in  the  past  thirty-odd  years.  And 
I  would  not  ignore  the  lure  of  its  invigorating  climate  that 
invites  to  the  healthfulness  of  the  open-air  life  and  gives 
back  vigour  and  strength  to  the  hundreds  of  thousands 
who  have  lost  them  in  their  mad  and  pathetic  chase  for 
wealth,  or  a  livelihood,  in  the  crowded  cities  of  the  East 
and  Middle  West.  Its  sunshiny,  pure  atmosphered,  for- 
est-sloped area  brings  delight  in  that  it  aids  materially  in 
restoring  the  weak,  anemic,  and  sick  to  vigorous  health. 
The  conditions  invite  one  into  the  open.  Individually 
they  call  also  in  vivid  chorus  and  orchestra,  but  all  with 
the  same  theme :  "  Come  out  into  the  open!  Let  us  fill 
your  lungs  with  the  purest  of  sun-laden,  balsam-charged 
air.  Let  us  induce  you  to  walk,  to  exercise,  to  ride,  to 
golf,  to  motor,  to  row,  to  swim,  to  climb,  and  thus  brush 
the  cobwebs  from  the  brains  and  muscles,  strengthen  the 
body,  vivify  and  quicken  the  legs,  and,  better  than  all, 
free  the  spirit,  and  give  new  life,  vim,  ambition,  activity 
to  the  will !  "  For  this  is  what  New  Mexico  actually 
does  to  the  health-seeker,  and  thus  fills  him  with  the  new 
delight  of  joyous,  happy,  exuberant  living.  Under  such 
conditions  despondency  is  put  to  rout,  the  blue  devils  are 
slain,  gloom  and  despair  are  unknown,  and  even  the  con- 
firmed hypochondriac  becomes  infected  with  radiant  joy, 
and  laughs,  "  and  sings,  and  shouts  in  the  fields  about," 
while  he  totally  forgets  his  imaginary  wrongs  and  ills. 

Then  it  has  ever  been  a  delight  to  the  stock  man.  New 
Mexico,  with  its  immense  mountain  ranges,  long  sloping 
foothills  and  vast  grazing  areas,  seemed  especially  adapted 
for  cattle,  and  from  Raton  to  Gallup,  Taos  to  Deming, 
it  is  known  the  United  States  over  as  one  of  the  largest 


"  The  Land  of  the  Delight  Makers  "       5 

beef-producing  States  of  the  Union.  Sheep,  too,  and 
goats,  are  the  chosen  stock  not  only  of  Navahos  and 
Mexicans  —  who  own  them  in  herds  of  many  hundreds, 
and  even  thousands  —  but  of  many  shrewd  white  men 
who  have  amassed  large  fortunes  from  their  wool,  mut- 
ton, and  pelts. 

If  money-producing  mines  cause  delight  then  New 
Mexico  is  a  delight  maker  in  this  field,  for  it  has  been 
rich  in  productive  mines  ever  since  the  days  when  Espejo 
and  his  men  discovered  valuable  ores  and  found  the  In- 
dians well  versed  in  the  art  of  mining  turquoise.  In  Soc- 
corro  County  is  its  State  School  of  Mines,  and  on  the 
Santa  Fe  sidings  at  Gallup  hundreds  of  carloads  of  coal, 
just  mined,  can  be  seen,  about  to  be  hauled  to  California 
and  other  Western  points,  and  as  far  east  as  Kansas. 

Is  there  any  limit  to  the  delight  experienced  by  the 
farmer  who  sees  barren  and  arid  land  subject  to  the  vivi- 
fying influence  of  water,  secured  by  judicious  conserva- 
tion of  the  flood  streams,  or  by  tapping  the  inexhaustible 
underground  flow  of  hitherto  unknown  sources  ?  Deming 
and  its  surrounding  Mimbres  Valley,  in  two  or  three  dec- 
ades, has  built  up  from  nothing  to  a  thriving  city  of 
4,000  inhabitants,  and  a  region  smiling  with  fertility  and 
dotted  with  the  homes  of  a  healthy  and  prosperous  and 
happy  people.  Below  Elephant  Butte  dam,  like  a  giant 
link  of  sausages,  lie  the  fertile  areas  of  Palomas,  Rincon, 
the  upper  and  lower  Mesilla,  and  the  El  Paso  Valleys,  all 
of  them  brought  into  wonderful  productiveness  by  the 
conservation  of  the  hitherto  untamed  Rio  Grande.  On 
the  Pecos  River,  too,  the  United  States  Reclamation  en- 
gineers have  expended  their  intellect  and  energy  in  con- 
trolling the  flood  waters  and  diverting  them  to  lands  of 
great  promise,  and  the  cities  of  Roswell  and  Carlsbad 
and  their  thriving  environs  loudly  assert  that  New  Mexico 


6     New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

is  still  a  land  for  the  making  of  delight  by  means  of  agri- 
culture. 

And  the  reclaiming  processes  go  on  sometimes  without 
the  discovery  of  new,  or  the  control  of  the  wild,  sources 
of  water  for  irrigation.  The  people  of  New  Mexico  in 
some  regions,  especially  the  Estancia  Valley,  are  watch- 
ing their  bank  accounts  become  actually  plethoric  because 
of  their  discovery  that  beans  grow  prolifically  in  their 
hitherto  slowly  developing  regions.  "  Bean  festivals  " 
are  becoming  growingly  more  popular  in  the  State,  and  I 
can  vouch  that  the  delight  manifested  on  the  faces  and  in 
the  demeanour  of  residents  and  visitors  alike  has  never 
been  surpassed  by  the  world- famed  bean-eaters  of  the 
far-away  East,  though  their  beans  are  accompanied  by 
noted  brands  of  brown  bread  and  culture. 

Finally,  as  one  reads  the  chapter  on  the  influence  of 
New  Mexico  upon  literature  and  art,  it  will  be  seen  how 
great  has  been  the  delight  produced  in  artist  and  author 
by  this  land  of  wonder  and  fascination.  Taos,  for  half 
a  century,  has  attracted  its  artists  and  to-day  boasts  a 
large  and  growing  colony  whose  pictures  are  recognized 
as  belonging  to  the  noted  art  productions  of  America. 
Santa  Fe  has  become  a  noted  Literary  Colony.  Here 
Bandelier  produced  some  of  his  greatest  work;  in  its  an- 
cient Palacio  General  Lew  Wallace  wrote  part  of  his 
Ben  Hur.  Here  Davis  gained  much  of  the  material  for 
his  El  Gringo  and  Spanish  Conquest,  and  Lummis  stored 
his  mind  with  history  and  romance  which  he  afterwards 
put  into  his  Land  of  Poco  Tiempo,  Spanish  Pioneers, 
and  two  volumes  of  fascinating  short  stories.  It  is  also 
the  home  of  the  first  real  field-school  of  American  Archae- 
ology in  America.  Indeed  it  can  confidently  be  affirmed 
that  without  New  Mexico  there  would  be  no  accepted 
Science  of  American  Archaeology  to  the  outside  world. 


"The  Land  of  the  Delight  Makers  "       7 

Hence,  for  these  and  many  other  reasons  that  will  occur 
to  those  familiar  with  the  land,  it  will  be  seen  that  we  owe 
much  to  Bandelier  for  the  use  of  his  happy  phrase,  "  the 
Land  of  the  Delight-Makers." 


CHAPTER  II 

THE  EXPLORATIONS  AND  SUBJUGATIONS  OF  NEW   MEXICO 

The  transcontinental  journey  of  Cabeza  de  Vaca, 
after  the  destruction  of  the  ill-fated  expedition  of  Pam- 
philo  de  Narvaez,  is  well  known.  And  so,  also,  is  the 
memorable  journey  of  Coronado,  when  Zuni,  Acoma,  the 
Hopi  pueblos,  those  of  the  Rio  Grande  and  the  Grand 
Canyon  of  the  Colorado  River  were  discovered  and  de- 
scribed for  the  first  time;  also  his  expedition  which 
reached  out  as  far  as  Wichita,  Kansas. 

The  failure  of  Coronado's  expedition  withheld  further 
exploration  for  four  decades,  though  the  frontier  of  Mex- 
ican settlement  was  being  constantly  thrust  forward  and 
nearer  by  explorers,  missionaries,  miners,  cattlemen  and 
the  military.  Reports  of  the  large  settlements  of  the 
Pueblos  were  coming  in  all  the  time  and  they  did  not 
minify  the  cotton  fields  and  the  wealth  of  the  food  sup- 
ply of  the  Indians.  In  1581,  on  June  5,  an  expedition  left 
Santa  Barbara,  Mexico,  comprising  three  friars,  nine 
soldiers  and  about  sixteen  Indian  servants.  The  organ- 
izer of  the  party  was  Fray  Augustin  Rodriguez,  and  the 
commander  of  the  soldiers  was  Francisco  Sanchez,  com- 
monly called  Chamuscado.  These  people  reached  Acoma 
and  two  of  the  missionaries  remained  in  the  country. 
The  other  one,  Fray  Santa  Maria,  who  had  decided  to 
go  back  alone,  was  murdered  in  a  few  days  by  Indians. 
The  reports  of  this  expedition  excited  the  people  of  New 
Spain,  and  led  to  the  final  subjugation  of  New  Mexico  by 
Juan  de  Ofiate. 

8 


The  Explorations  of  New  Mexico  9 

But  in  the  meantime  the  Franciscans  were  active  on 
behalf  of  their  brethren  who  were  out  among  the  savages 
of  this  little-known  land.  In  their  anxiety  they  organized 
an  expedition,  that  had  their  interests  first  of  all  at  heart, 
led  by  Fray  Bernaldino  Beltran.  This  was  financed  by  a 
wealthy  citizen  of  Mexico,  Antonio  de  Espejo,  and  late 
in  1582,  with  an  equipment  of  a  hundred  and  fifteen 
horses  and  mules,  it  started  north.  When  the  party 
reached  the  Tiguas  they  learned  of  the  death  of  all  the 
missionaries.  Thus  the  avowed  purpose  of  the  expedi- 
tion was  gained,  yet  both  Father  Beltran  and  Espejo 
deemed  the  opportunity  to  explore  further  too  good  to  be 
lost,  so  they  wandered  about,  visiting  various  pueblos, 
hunting  for  a  reported  lake  of  gold  —  which,  of  course, 
they  did  not  find, —  receiving  a  present  of  four  thousand 
cotton  blankets  from  the  Hopi,  and  doing  considerable 
prospecting  for  mines  in  western  Arizona.  Father 
Beltran  then  returned  to  New  Spain  but  Espejo  turned 
east  until  the  hostility  of  the  Tanos  Pueblos,  who  would 
neither  admit  him  nor  give  him  food,  led  him  to  with- 
draw. 

The  various  reports  of  this  expedition  added  fuel  to 
the  fires  long  raging  in  the  minds  of  the  Spanish-Mexican 
gold  hunters,  and  as  Espejo  certainly  did  find  some  rich 
ores,  it  was  not  long  before  determined  efforts  were  being 
made  by  several  aspirants  to  secure  from  the  viceroy  the 
necessary  license  for  starting  out  on  a  glorious  career  of 
conquest  and  the  accumulation  of  wealth.  It  must  here 
be  recalled  that  no  citizen  of  Spain  was  allowed  to  start 
out  unauthorised  even  in  the  exploration  of  a  new  coun- 
try. The  creatures  we  call  kings  were  very  jealous  of 
their  prerogatives,  one  of  which  was  that  they,  by  the 
favour  of  Almighty  God,  owned  all  the  undiscovered  and 
unexplored  countries,  and  that  they  alone  had  the  right 


10    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

and  power  to  confer  upon  whomsoever  they  condescended 
to  honour  by  their  favour  the  high  privilege  of  spending 
their  own  money  and  risking  their  own  lives  in  making  the 
needful  explorations  and  conquests.  Hence  the  viceroy 
was  besieged  by  requests  for  licenses.  In  the  meantime 
two  rascally  pirates  —  according  to  kingly  standards  — 
started  out  on  an  unauthorized  expedition,  and  spent 
about  a  year  visiting  the  Pueblos  and  going  well  into  the 
Buffalo  Country.  One  of  them,  Humano,  murdered  the 
other,  Levya,  and  was  himself  murdered  in  turn  by  the 
Indians. 

Then,  in  1595,  the  final  decision  was  made,  and  out 
of  all  the  aspirants  for  the  honour  Juan  de  Ofiate  was 
chosen.  Here  "  influence  "  doubtless  had  its  "  pull,"  for 
Ofiate  was  not  only  wealthy,  but  his  wife  was  the  grand- 
daughter of  Cortes,  and  the  great-granddaughter  of  Mon- 
tezuma. Possibly  superstition  had  its  share  in  the 
"  pull,"  for  what  powers  could  resist  one  who  was  so  close 
to  the  great  Cortes? 

There  was  not  quite  as  much  fanfare  of  trumpets  and 
pomp  of  circumstance  on  the  starting  out  of  Ofiate  as 
there  was  when  Coronado  set  forth,  but  the  expedition 
was  one  to  command  respectful  attention.  There  were 
four  hundred  men,  of  whom  one  hundred  and  thirty  had 
their  families  along.  Eighty-three  wagons  and  carts  car- 
ried the  baggage,  and  a  herd  of  more  than  7,000  head  of 
stock  was  driven  on  foot.  Father  Martinez,  of  the  Fran- 
ciscans, with  a  band  of  his  fellow  friars,  was  in  charge 
of  the  spiritual  interests. 

It  must  have  been  an  impressive  procession  that  passed 
through  the  streets  of  the  last  Mexican  city,  and  what 
high  hopes  were  centered  around  it!  After  getting  well 
advanced  on  their  journey  Ofiate,  with  sixty  men,  went 
ahead,  and  on  July  7,  1598,  received  the  submission  of 


The  Explorations  of  New  Mexico        11 

the  Indian  chiefs  of  seven  "  provinces  "  at  Santo  Do- 
mingo and  four  days  later,  July  n,  reached  the  pueblos 
of  Caypa,  where  he  determined  to  establish  his  head- 
quarters. He  christened  the  place  San  Juan  de  los  Cabal- 
leros.  This  was  the  first  town  started  in  New  Mexico 
by  the  Spaniards.  Its  location  to-day  is  known  as  Cha- 
mita.  A  month  later  fifteen  hundred  Indians  were  work- 
ing with  the  Spaniards  on  an  irrigating  ditch  which  Onate 
was  putting  in  for  "  the  city  of  San  Francisco."  On  Au- 
gust 23  a  church  was  begun  and  its  completion  was  cele- 
brated on  September  8.  Then,  on  September  9,  after  a 
great  celebration  the  day  before,  a  general  assembly  was 
held,  rods  of  office  were  given  to  the  chiefs  of  the  various 
pueblos,  the  missionaries  allotted  to  their  respective  sta- 
tions and  the  conquest  of  New  Mexico  declared  to  be 
complete. 

Onate  now  began  to  reach  out.  He  sent  one  of  his 
captains,  Vicente  de  Zaldivar,  eastward,  to  explore  the 
Buffalo  Country,  while  he  himself  visited  Zuni,  discov- 
ered the  great  salt  deposits,  and  thence  went  to  the  Hopi 
country,  intending  to  continue  traveling  until  he  came 
to  the  South  Sea  where  he  hoped  to  find  great  wealth  in 
pearls. 

In  November,  Juan  de  Zaldivar,  Vicente's  brother, 
started  west  to  join  Onate,  but,  as  is  recorded  in  the  chap- 
ter on  Acoma,  he  was  slain  at  that  pueblo,  and  Vicente 
went  to  punish  the  murderers,  which  he  did  most  effec- 
tively. After  this  he  went  westward  with  twenty-five 
companions,  and  for  three  months  tried  to  reach  the 
South  Sea,  reporting  that  he  came  as  near  as  three  days 
from  it.  Hostile  Indians  and  impassable  mountains, 
however,  stood  in  the  way. 

In  the  meantime  Onate  was  having  troubles  of  his  own, 
but  he  was  resolute,  brave  and  daring,  and,  in  1604,  was 


12    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

rejoiced  by  the  accomplishment  of  his  great  desire,  for, 
reaching  the  Colorado  River  at  Bill  Williams  fork,  he 
descended  its  left  branch  until  he  arrived  at  the  Gulf  of 
California.  In  the  chapter  on  Inscription  Rock  will  be 
found  a  copy  of  the  record  left  there  of  this  memorable 
journey. 

There  is  also  an  inscription  of  Don  Francisco  Manuel 
de  Silva  Nieto,  who  was  one  of  the  governors  of  New 
Mexico  after  Onate  (1629).  Another  inscription,  with 
the  date  1636,  is  claimed  to  be  that  of  Diego  Martin 
Barba,  who  was  secretary  to  Don  Francisco  Martinez 
Baeza,  governor  at  that  time. 

The  records  in  New  Mexico  or  Washington  of  the  pe- 
riod between  Onate  and  the  rebellion  of  1680  are  scant, 
doubtless  owing  to  their  destruction  by  the  Indians  during 
that  uprising. 

Further  investigation  among  the  archives  in  Spain  and 
Mexico  may  reveal  much  that  we  do  not  now  know. 
Special  research  students  of  the  University  of  California 
have  already  made  interesting  discoveries  about  this 
patriotic  attempt  of  the  Indians  to  drive  out  their  hated 
subjugators  and  to  regain  control  of  their  own  lives. 

The  governor  in  charge  at  the  time  of  the  rebellion 
was  Otermin,  and  he  was  succeeded  by  Cruzate,  who  en- 
deavoured, with  more  or  less  success,  to  force  the  In- 
dians back  to  their  allegiance.  But  it  was  to  Don  Diego 
de  Vargas  Zapata  Lujan  Ponce  de  Leon  that  the  task 
of  reconquering  the  country  was  allotted.  It  appears, 
however,  that  had  the  king  known  of  the  success  of  Cru- 
zate's  efforts  it  is  very  possible  that  to  Cruzate  the  "  hon- 
our "  of  the  reconquest  would  have  fallen,  for,  on  hear- 
ing what  he  had  accomplished,  he  wrote  the  Viceroy  of 
New  Spain  instructing  him  that  if  de  Vargas  had  not  yet 
taken  his  position,  or  was  not  governing  successfully,  he, 


The  Explorations  of  New  Mexico        13 

de  Vargas,  was  to  be  given  another  office  and  the  gover- 
norship be  retained  by  Cruzate. 

De  Vargas,  on  receiving  his  appointment,  at  once 
marched  north,  though  with  a  small  army.  He  proceeded 
with  great  rapidity,  determining  to  take  the  enemy  by 
surprise,  but  found  most  of  the  lower  pueblos  in  ruins, 
and  those  of  Santo  Domingo  and  Cochiti  abandoned. 
On  the  13th  of  September,  1692,  he  reached  Santa  Fe, 
surrounded  the  city,  shut  off  the  water-supply  and  de- 
manded the  surrender  of  the  Indians.  These  were  de- 
fiant and  threatening,  but,  before  night,  yielded.  Then, 
with  the  help  of  Tupatu,  one  of  the  chiefs  who  had  been 
most  active  in  the  rebellion,  but  now  offered  his  submis- 
sive allegiance,  de  Vargas  visited  the  various  pueblos, 
and,  in  turn,  succeeded  in  persuading  them  all  to  return 
to  the  fold.  At  Acoma,  Zuni,  and  the  Hopi  pueblos  it 
appeared  that  there  would  be  trouble,  but  the  persuasions 
of  de  Vargas,  the  friars  who  accompanied  him,  or  of 
Tupatu,  answered  the  purpose,  and  all  the  pueblos  asked 
for  pardon  and  yielded  without  conflict.  The  only  trou- 
bles that  were  serious  were  caused  by  attacks  of  bands  of 
Apaches.  Thus  by  the  end  of  1692  the  reconquest  sup- 
posedly was  accomplished. 

But  de  Vargas  knew  there  was  considerable  unrest 
among  the  Indians,  and  he  visited  the  viceroy  to  urge  the 
need  of  sending  more  soldiers  and  as  many  colonists  as 
could  be  gathered  together,  in  accordance  with  a  request 
previously  preferred.  The  viceroy  agreed  to  supply 
them,  but  de  Vargas,  with  characteristic  impatience,  hur- 
ried back  with  800  colonists  and  about  a  hundred  sol- 
diers. Seventeen  friars,  under  Fray  Salvador  de  San 
Antonio,  also  went  along  as  missionaries.  Before  they 
reached  Santa  Fe  the  emigrants  were  suffering  for  want 
of  food,  and  their  woes  were  added  to  by  rumours  that 


14    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

the  Indians  were  opposed  to  their  coming,  had  made  a 
treaty  with  the  Apaches  to  join  them  in  fighting  the  Span- 
iards and  would  do  everything  in  their  power  to  keep  them 
out  of  the  country.  De  Vargas  also  was  warned  that 
some  of  the  Indians  of  the  pueblo  of  Zia  were  decidedly 
in  favour  of  war  against  the  Spaniards.  In  addition  to 
this,  he  was  informed  that  his  former  interpreter,  Pedro 
de  Tapia,  had  been  spreading  disturbing  rumours  abroad 
to  the  effect  that  de  Vargas,  upon  his  return,  intended  to 
execute  all  the  leaders  of  the  rebellion  of  1680. 

On  his  arrival  at  San  Felipe,  however,  de  Vargas  sent 
messages  of  peace  to  the  people  of  the  various  pueblos, 
and,  in  spite  of  warlike  rumours,  went  on  his  way  to  Santa 
Fe.  Tupatu  joined  him  on  the  way  and  showed  by  his 
deep  dejection  that  the  evil  rumours  had  reached  his  ears, 
but  when  de  Vargas  assured  him  of  his  good  faith  the 
Indian  cheered  up,  and  went  on  with  the  good  news  to 
Santa  Fe.  The  result  was  that  when  de  Vargas  arrived 
he  reentered  the  city,  on  the  16th  of  December,  under  the 
banner  used  for  the  same  purpose  by  Onate,  and  thus  was 
able  to  report  the  complete  pacification  of  New  Mexico 
to  the  viceroy.  The  document  announcing  his  entry  is 
still  in  existence  and  gives  a  very  graphic  picture  of  the 
event. 

From  now  on,  however,  de  Vargas  was  to  be  in  the 
midst  of  trouble.  It  came  to  him  on  every  hand.  His 
forbearance  and  kindly  treatment  of  the  rebellious  In- 
dians was  accounted  as  weakness,  or  cowardice,  and  the 
native  medicine-men,  always  hostile  to  the  Spaniards,  in- 
cited them  to  new  rebellion.  The  Tanos,  for  instance, 
had  been  allowed  to  leave  their  own  village  at  Galisteo 
and  come  and  live  in  the  old  palace  and  adjacent  royal 
houses  at  Santa  Fe.  De  Vargas  now  wanted  the  build- 
ings and  urged  the  Tanos  to  vacate  them.     This  they  re- 


The  Explorations  of  New  Mexico        15 

fused  to  do,  and  on  December  28,  1693,  dosed  the  en- 
trance to  the  plaza  and  made  defiant  preparations  for 
defense. 

Warfare  now  began  in  earnest  and  was  waged  furi- 
ously all  day,  the  Spaniards,  however,  having  the  best  of 
it.  When  night  came  the  Tanos  governor  hanged  him- 
self, and  the  rest  surrendered.  If  de  Vargas,  in  the  past, 
had  shown  himself  too  lenient,  there  certainly  could  be 
no  such  charge  repeated  at  this  juncture,  for  he  took  sev- 
enty of  the  leaders  and  immediately  executed  them,  and 
then  sold  four  hundred  of  the  women  and  children  into 
slavery. 

This  unexpected  severity  so  angered  the  Indians  that 
the  Tanos  and  six  of  the  pueblos  of  the  Tehuas  sprang 
to  arms  and  fled  to  the  summit  of  Tu-yo,  the  Black  Mesa, 
near  San  Ildefonso,  which  they  put  into  a  state  of  de- 
fense. From  here  they  raided  the  bands  of  cattle  and 
horses  of  the  Spaniards,  and  slaughtered  every  one  they 
could  capture  who  left  the  defenses  of  the  city.  The  In- 
dians of  Pecos,  Zia,  Santa  Ana,  and  San  Felipe  remained 
faithful  to  de  Vargas,  and  thus  incurred  the  bitter  enmity 
and  hostility  of  their  neighbours.  When  de  Vargas 
marched  to  the  Black  Mesa,  January  9,  1694,  the  hostiles 
bamboozled  him  by  leading  him  to  believe  they  wished 
to  make  peace.  In  March,  however,  things  came  to  a 
head.  With  one  hundred  and  ten  soldiers,  many  of  the 
settlers  and  friendly  Indians,  the  governor  began  an  at- 
tack. His  two  field  pieces  burst  at  the  first  discharge, 
yet  for  fifteen  days  the  conflict  was  waged,  intermittently, 
with  thirty  Indians  slain,  when  de  Vargas  returned  to 
Santa  Fe  with  considerable  maize  and  a  hundred  horses 
and  mules  he  had  recovered  from  the  enemy. 

The  rebels  of  Cochiti  also  took  refuge  on  the  Mesa 
of  Cienequilla  and  showed  fight,  but  they  were  compelled 


16    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

to  flee  by  a  surprise  attack  guided  by  friendly  Indians, 
leaving  twenty-one  dead  on  the  field  of  battle. 

In  June  the  Taos  Indians  demanded  attention,  and  on 
the  way  to  them  de  Vargas  had  to  fight  the  Tehuas  at 
Cuyamungue,  about  eleven  miles  north  of  Santa  Fe,  and 
one  Indian  was  killed  for  each  mile  traveled. 

Taos  was  deserted.  The  Indians  had  fled  to  the  nearby 
mountains,  and  the  governor  sacked  their  pueblo  and 
carried  away  a  large  amount  of  corn.  He  now  had  to 
march  upon  the  Jemez,  who,  after  harassing  the  Indian 
allies  of  the  Spaniards  at  Zia  and  Santa  Ana,  had  fled 
to  the  mesa  above  the  San  Diego  Canyon.  In  the  fight 
that  ensued  de  Vargas  slew  about  seventy  of  the  foe,  five 
others  perished  by  fire,  and  seven  threw  themselves  over 
the  cliff  and  were  dashed  to  pieces  rather  than  surrender. 
He  also  captured  three  hundred  and  sixty-one  prisoners. 
Later  the  Jemez  Indians  gave  up  one  of  their  chiefs,  who, 
they  claimed,  had  incited  them  to  war,  and  de  Vargas 
sent  him  for  ten  years'  slavery  to  the  mines  of  New  Spain. 

Another  attack  was  now  made  upon  the  Tanos  and 
Tehuas  on  the  Black  Mesa,  at  San  Udefonso.  Twice 
when  de  Vargas  attempted  to  scale  the  summit  he  was 
driven  back.  He  was  more  successful  in  cutting  off  sup- 
plies, and  the  desperate  Indians,  to  save  themselves  from 
starving  to  death,  came  down  and  gave  battle  several 
times  in  the  valley.  Each  attempt,  however,  was  in  vain, 
and  after  repeated  defeats  they  became  discouraged  and 
sued  for  peace. 

This  seemed  to  end  the  troubles.  The  Indians  had  had 
enough.  They  had  tested  the  power  of  the  Spaniards  and 
found  them  too  hard  to  fight.  They  acknowledged  their 
defeat  and  promised  to  be  good  if  de  Vargas  would  re- 
turn to  them  their  women  and  children,  for  whenever  the 
governor  had  been  successful  in  one  of  his  attacks  on  the 


The  Old  Franciscan  Mission  at  the  Pueblo  of  Zia. 
n  a  Painting  made  especially  for  this  work  by  Carlos  Vierra. 


r*ifc 


The  Explorations  of  New  Mexico        17 

pueblos,  he  captured  not  only  the  men  (who  were  sold 
into  slavery  to  the  mines  of  New  Spain),  but  the  women 
and  children  also.  These  were  given  as  servants  to  the 
Spanish  and  Mexican  colonists.  This  action  on  the  part 
of  de  Vargas  was  now  to  rebound  upon  his  own  head. 
To  keep  faith  with  the  Indians  he  ordered  the  return  of 
their  women  and  children,  when  the  colonists  severely 
abused  him  for  depriving  them  of  their  excellent  servants. 

The  friars  resumed  their  missionary  labours  among  the 
Indians,  and  all  again  seemed  well. 

This  content,  however,  proved  to  be  only  on  the  sur- 
face. The  Indians  were  filled  with  bitter  hatred  of  the 
Spaniards,  and  the  presence  of  the  padres  added  fuel  to 
the  fire  as  they  sought  to  break  up  the  "  ways  of  the  old  " 
and  thus  destroy  the  power  of  the  native  medicine  men, 
who  were  more  dogmatic  as  to  their  being  in  the  right 
than  were  the  friars  themselves. 

Then  in  1696  famine  broke  out  and  its  gaunt  specter 
stalked  to  and  fro  among  the  colonists,  adding  more  woe 
to  the  trouble-cup  that  for  so  long  had  been  brewing  for 
the  unhappy  governor.  The  friars,  who  were  better  able 
than  any  to  judge  the  temper  of  the  Indians,  petitioned 
him, —  nay,  insisted,  that  he  place  guards  of  soldiers  at 
each  mission.  Preferring  to  believe  that  the  Indians  were 
thoroughly  pacified  he  replied  that  those  friars  who  were 
afraid  might  leave  their  charges  and  return  to  Santa  Fe. 
A  few  of  them  took  advantage  of  this  permission,  and  it 
was  well  they  did  so,  for,  on  June  4,  the  Indians  of  Taos, 
Picuries,  the  Tehuas,  the  Oueres  of  Santo  Domingo  and 
Cochiti,  as  well  as  the  Jemez  arose,  killed  five  mission- 
aries and  twenty-one  Spaniards  and  then  fled  to  the 
mountains.  There  they  persuaded  the  Navahos  and  the 
pueblos  of  Acoma  and  Zuni  to  join  with  them  in  an  at- 
tack upon  the  pueblos  of  Zia,  Santa  Ana  and  San  Felipe, 


18    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

who  still  remained  "  loyal  "  to  the  Spaniards.  At  Zia 
there  were  a  few  soldiers,  and  the  alcade-mayor  of  Berna- 
lillo joining  them,  a  fierce  battle  took  place,  raging  in  the 
San  Diego  canyon  and  over  the  ruins  of  San  Juan.  Al- 
though the  Indians  had  the  much  larger  force  they  were 
defeated,  with  the  loss  of  thirty  men.  This  broke  up  the 
confederation.  The  Jemez  fled  and  remained  with  the 
Navahos  for  several  years,  and  thus  escaped  punishment, 
but  de  Vargas  was  resolved  to  make  an  example  of  the 
Acomese  and  Zunis.  On  the  8th  of  August  he  marched 
to  Acoma,  and  on  the  15  th  made  an  attack.  Though  he 
failed  to  scale  the  penyol  height,  he  captured  five  prison- 
ers, one  of  them  being  the  chief.  The  latter  he  released, 
but,  being  denied  the  ascent  to  the  village,  he  shot  the 
other  four  and  retired. 

The  following  month  found  him  fighting  the  Taos  In- 
dians in  several  battles,  after  which  they  submitted  and 
returned  to  their  pueblo.  The  Tehuas  of  San  Juan  and 
Picuries  next  received  attention,  and  on  the  26th  of  Oc- 
tober, after  a  severe  defeat,  eighty-four  Indian  women 
and  children  were  captured  and  given  to  the  Spanish  sol- 
diers on  their  return  to  Santa  Fe,  as  servants. 

This  year  saw  the  end  of  the  governorship  of  de  Vargas 
and  though  he  expected  a  reappointment,  and  the  king 
actually  made  it,  communications  with  Spain  were  so 
slow  that  Don  Pedro  Rodriguez  Cubero  was  appointed 
as  his  successor,  took  his  place,  heard  charges  preferred 
against  him  (de  Vargas),  fined  him  four  thousand  pesos, 
and  sent  him  to  prison  for  three  years  before  the  will  of 
the  king  became  known.  Not  only  was  he  reappointed, 
but  the  Crown  gave  him  public  recognition  and  offered 
him  a  choice  of  the  titles  of  marques  or  conde.  In  the 
attack  upon  de  Vargas  by  the  colonists  he  was  accused 
of  several  things.     He  was  charged  with  the  embezzle- 


The  Explorations  of  New  Mexico        19 

ment  of  money  given  to  him  by  the  viceroy  for  the  sup- 
port of  the  colonists;  his  execution  of  the  Tanos  captives 
was  said  to  have  caused  the  uprising  of  1694-6;  the 
famine  was  the  result  of  his  mismanagement;  and  he  had 
driven  out  of  the  country  "those  families  that  were  likely 
to  have  testified  against  him.  As  de  Vargas  had  resisted 
the  authority  of  Cubero  in  displacing  him  and  appealed  to 
the  viceroy  (who  did  not  sustain  him)  the  other,  as  we 
have  seen,  fined  and  imprisoned  him,  at  the  very  time  the 
king  had  publicly  acclaimed  him  as  the  pacifier  of  New 
Mexico  and  had  offered  him  the  patent  of  nobility.  Such 
is  Fate !  and  thus  are  treated  the  puppets  of  kings ! 

It  is  not  my  purpose,  however,  to  retail  the  quarrels  of 
the  rulers  of  New  Mexico.  Let  it  suffice  to  say  that 
from  now  on  the  Pueblos  practically  were  subjugated. 
The  Navahos  and  Apaches  continued  to  give  considerable 
trouble,  carrying  on  their  depredations  and  terrorizing 
even  up  to  within  the  past  thirty  or  forty  years  when  the 
United  States  succeeded  in  drawing  their  savage  teeth. 


CHAPTER  III 

THE    HOMERIC    EPIC    OF    NEW    MEXICO 

Much  of  what  we  know  of  the  early  Grecian  wars  and 
their  heroes  comes  to  us  through  Homer.  For  centuries 
the  work  of  the  blind  bard  of  Greece  has  been  the  mental 
training  ground  of  the  youth  of  all  civilized  countries. 
They  have  learned  not  only  language,  history,  mythology 
and  warfare  from  him  but  standards  of  heroism,  bravery 
and  manhood. 

I  have  no  objection  to  Homer.  I  would  have  every 
boy  and  girl  master  him  thoroughly.  But,  where  oppor- 
tunity affords,  where  local  annals,  traditions,  or  history 
can  be  found  to  supplement  Homer  and  thus  give  local 
colour  to  the  deeds  of  bravery,  acts  of  heroism,  lives  of 
glorious  manhood,  I  would  introduce  and  use  these  "  local 
Homers  "  in  the  education  of  the  youth  of  the  land  and 
thus  fire  them  to  the  highest  stimulation. 

Is  it  not  self-evident  that  boys  and  girls  will  take  more 
interest  in  events  that  have  occurred  on  their  own  native 
soil, —  the  place  of  their  present  everyday  habitation  — 
and  in  the  men  who  shaped  these  events,  than  they  will  in 
those  of  the  far-away  Homeric  lands  and  days?  The 
sooner  we  can  put  into  the  hearts  of  our  youth  the  thought 
that  they  are  as  capable  of  great  deeds  as  any  people  of 
history  the  nobler  their  lives,  and  the  higher  their  aspira- 
tions will  become. 

To  New  Mexico  especially  do  I  commend  this  argu- 
ment.    Her  history  is   full  of   fascination  and  interest. 

20 


The  Homeric  Epic  of  New  Mexico       21 

She  is  a  prolific  source  of  original-document  study,  full 
of  the  lively  spirit  of  adventure  and  of  stirring  incidents 
in  flood  and  field, —  fights  with  fierce  and  bloody  Indians, 
smothering  sandstorms,  freezing  blizzards,  trackless  des- 
erts, pathless  forests,  treacherous  quicksands,  and  awe- 
some canyons. 

One  of  these  original  sources  is  Villagra's  Htstoria  dc 
la  Nueva  Mexico,  published  in  1610, —  over  three  hun- 
dred years  ago, —  and  to  make  it  more  Homeric,  it  is 
written  in  verse  —  thirty- four  cantos  —  each  of  which, 
in  spite  of  its  rather  high-flown  efforts,  is  packed  full 
of  useful  historical  information.  This  book  belongs 
legitimately  to  the  chapter  on  New  Mexico  Literature,  but 
so  important  is  its  subject-matter  from  a  historical  stand- 
point that  it  deserves  especial  treatment. 

The  original  work  is  rare,  yet  copies  enough  were 
known  to  exist  to  have  prevented  the  historians  from  giv- 
ing —  as  they  all  did  —  incorrect  dates  of  the  Onate  con- 
quest. Its  value,  however,  seems  to  have  been  over- 
looked. Every  one  ignored  it  until,  in  1877,  Hubert 
Howe  Bancroft  found  it  to  be  a  real  compendium  of 
facts,  indeed  a  reasonably  true  history  of  the  Onate  expe- 
dition. About  the  same  time  a  Spanish  investigator, 
Fernandez  Duro,  and  our  own  Bandelier  also  called  at- 
tention to  it.  Its  importance  now,  however,  is  fully  rec- 
ognized:  so  much  so  that,  in  1899,  Don  Francisco  del 
Paso  y  Troncoso,  Director  of  the  National  Museum  of 
Mexico,  was  so  anxious  to  secure  a  copy  that  he  made  the 
trip  to  Madrid,  expressly  for  that  purpose.  He  succeeded 
in  obtaining  one  and  brought  it  back  to  Mexico,  where  he 
reprinted  it,  in  1900,  in  two  volumes.  Even  these  are  as 
scarce  as  the  proverbial  hen's  teeth. 

From  it  all  New  Mexican  historians,  since  the  time  of 
Bancroft,  quote,  as  Villagra  was  an  important  member 


22    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

of  Onate's  expedition,  and  his  great  poem  was  published 
only  eleven  years  after  the  conquest  took  place. 
Bancroft  thus  refers  to  it : 

When  I  had  occasion  to  consult  its  pages  in  1877,  I  did  so  with  an 
idea  that  it  might  furnish  material  for  a  brief  note  as  a  literary 
curiosity;  but  I  found  it  a  most  complete  narrative,  very  little  if 
at  all  the  less  useful  for  being  in  verse.  The  subject  is  well  enough 
adapted  to  epic  narration,  and  in  the  generally  smooth-flowing 
endecasyllabic  lines  of  Villagra  loses  nothing  of  its  intrinsic  fascina- 
tion. Occasionally  the  author  quits  the  realm  of  poesy  to  give  us 
a  document  in  plain  prose;  and  while  enthusiastic  in  praise  of  his 
leader  and  his  companions,  our  New  Mexican  Homer  is  modest  in 
recounting  his  own  exploits.  Of  all  the  territories  of  America  — 
or  of  the  world,  so  far  as  my  knowledge  goes  —  New  Mexico  alone 
may  point  to  a  poem  as  the  original  authority  for  its  early  annals. 
Not  less  remarkable  is  the  historic  accuracy  of  the  muse  in  this 
production,  or  the  long  concealment  of  the  book  from  the  eye  of 
students. 

He  thus  translates  the  opening  stanzas : 

Of  arms  I  sing  and  of  the  man  heroic: 

The  being,  valour,  prudence,  and  high  effort 

Of  him  whose  endless,   never-tiring  patience, 

Over  an  ocean  of  annoyance  stretching, 

Despite  the  fangs  of  foul,  envenomed  envy, 

Brave  deeds  of  prowess  ever  is  achieving ; 

Of  those  brave  men  of  Spain,  conquistadores, 

Who,  in  the  Western  India  nobly  striving, 

And  searching  out  all  of  the  world  yet  hidden, 

Still    onward   press    their   glorious    achievements, 

By  their  strong  arms  and  deeds  of  daring  valour, 

In  strife  of  arms  and  hardships  as  enduring 

As,  with    rude  pen,   worthy  of  being  honoured. 

And  thee  I  supplicate,  most  Christian  Philip, 

Since  of  New  Mexico  thou  art  the  Phoenix 

Of  late  sprung  forth  and  in  thy  grandeur  risen 

From  out  the  mass  of  living  flame  and   ashes 

Of  faith  most  ardent,  in  whose  glowing  embers 

Thy  own  most  holy  father  and  our  master 

We   saw   inwrapped,   devoured  by  sacred   fervour  — 

To   move    some   little    time    from    off   thy    shoulders 


The  Homeric  Epic  of  New  Mexico       23 

The  great  and  heavy  weight,  that  thee  oppresses, 

Of  that  terrestrial  globe  which   in   all  justice 

Is  by  thine  own  strong  arm  alone  supported ; 

And   giving,    gracious    king,    attentive    hearing. 

Thou  here  wilt  see  the  weight  of  weary  labours, 

And  grievous  calumnies  with  which  is  planted 

The  holy  gospel  and  the  faith  of  Jesus 

By  that  Achilles  who  by  royal  order 

Devotes  himself  to  such  heroic   service. 

And  if  I  may  by  rare  access  of  fortune 

Have  thee,  most  noble   Philip,   for  a  hearer, 

Who  doubts  that   with  a  universal   impulse 

The  whole  wide  world  will  hold  its  breath  to  listen 

To  that  which  holds  so  great  a  king's  attention? 

Then,  being  thus  by  thee  so   highly  favoured, 

Since  it  is  nothing  less  to  write  the  story 

Of  deeds  that  worthy  are  of  the  pen's  record, 

Than  to  achieve  deeds  that  no  less  are  worthy 

Of  being  put  by  the  same  pen  in  writing, 

Nothing   remains   but  that  those   men  heroic, 

For  whose   sake   I   this   task  have   undertaken, 

Should  still  encourage  by  their  acts  of  valour 

The  flight   ambitious  of   a  pen   so  humble, 

For  in  this  case  I  think  we  shall  see  equaled 

Deeds  by  the  words  in  which  they  are  recorded. 

Listen  to  me,  great  king,  for  I  was  witness 

Of  all  that  here,  my  lord,  I  have  to  tell  thee. 

Lummis,  in  his  Spanish  Pioneers,  has  a  fine  chapter  on 
Villagra  to  which  I  heartily  commend  my  readers. 


CHAPTER  IV 

THZ    GREAT    PUEBLO    REBELLION    BE    l68o 

What  is  patriotism?  What  is  a  rebellion?  Who 
judges  the  eternal  right  of  these  matters?  Were  George 
Washington  and  his  compeers  in  the  right  to  rebel  against 
England?  They  and  we  say.  Yes!  but  had  you  asked 
king,  queer:,  princes,  lords,  s:i:esmen.  bishops  and  all  the 

godly  men  of  England  a ~:irce  one  of  them 

would  have  said  other  than  that  the  leaders  of  the  Ameri- 
can rebellion  were  traitors  and  scoundrels,  fit  for  igno- 
minious death,  which  assuredly  would  have  been  meted 
out  to  them  had  they  been  caught. 

Traitors  to  whom?  to  what ' 

There  lies  the  whole  question.  Constituted  authority 
>  :".::  always  righteous  authority,  and  if  it  is  allowed  to 
letermine  its  own  righteo-.:  -  -  -  .  ithout  appeal,  who 
shall  dare  question  i:  ?  Kings  have  ruled  ever  by  the 
right  of  might,  hence  he  who  opposed  that  might  was  :: 
them,  traitor,  rebel,  renegade,  disloyal,  dishonourable, 
and  worthy  of  death.  Many  a  man  has  gone  down  to 
death  branded  with  one  or  more  of  these  opprobrious 
terms,  whc  yet  was  a  brave  and  upright  gentleman,  hating 
:   -  r.nical  power  and  placing  his  life  in  the  gamble  to 

Le:  it  forever  be  proclaimed  that  he  who  rebels  agair.-: 
power.  wdaarfvR'  vised,  against  tyranny.  injus:::e 

wror.r.  is  a  hero,  a  world-patriot,  one  of  the  great  and 

noble  throng  that  has  made  all  world  progress  possible 

:- 


The  Great  Pueblo  Rebellion  of  1680     25 

It  is  in  such  a  category,  therefore,  that  I  place  the 
leaders  of  the  Indian  rebellion  in  New  Mexico  of  1680. 
The  Spaniards  had  come;  they  had  "subjugated"  the 
Pueblos,  they  were  the  "  duly  constituted  authorities,"  so 
declared  by  statesmen  and  priests  as  well  as  the  military. 

I  do  not  propose,  here,  to  argue  the  abstract  right  of  a 
progressive  people  to  take  possession  of  the  country  of  a 
non-progressive  people,  for  this  is  the  staggering  question 
that  for  weary  weeks  occupied  the  attention  of  the  great 
Peace  Congress  in  Paris  at  the  close  of  the  World  War. 

But  it  does  seem  reasonable  and  right, —  granting, 
temporarily,  for  the  sake  of  the  argument,  the  right  of 
the  stronger  nation  to  possess  itself  of  the  lands  of  the 
weaker  nation  —  that  the  more  powerful  should  treat 
those  they  have  subjugated  with  kindliness  and  due  con- 
sideration. 

Did  the  Spaniards  do  this? 

Let  them  be  their  own  witnesses. 

The  Pueblo  rebellion  of  1680  was  so  striking  an  up- 
rising and  had  such  a  wonderful  effect  upon  the  history 
of  New  Mexico  and  Arizona,  and  there  were  so  many 
dramatic  features  connected  with  it  that  it  is  worth  while 
to  devote  a  few  pages  to  a  thorough  understanding  of  it 
and  its  leaders.  Unquestionably  the  dominating  spirit 
was  Pope  (Po-pay),  a  man  of  tireless  energy  and  won- 
derful strength  of  character.  As  early  as  1675,  Pope 
began  to  attract  the  attention  of  the  Spaniards.  There 
had  been  a  lot  of  trouble  at  the  pueblo  of  San  Ildefonso. 
The  friar  in  charge,  who  was  also  Superior  of  the  con- 
vent, had  suffered  in  several  peculiar  ways  so  that  he 
thought  he  was  bewitched.  He  accused  the  Indians  of 
putting  this  magical  and  devilish  spell  upon  him.  A  num- 
ber of  them  were  arrested  and  placed  on  trial.  As  a  re- 
sult of  the  trial  forty-three  Indians  were  sold  into  slavery 


26    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

and  four  more  of  them  were  hung.  It  was  at  this  junc- 
ture that  Pope  began  to  act.  Without  starting  an  upris- 
ing, but  in  the  most  discreet  and  diplomatic  manner,  he 
aroused  enough  feeling  and  sentiment  among  his  people 
so  that  seventy  of  the  principal  warriors  early  one  morn- 
ing entered  the  house  of  the  Governor  of  the  territory 
at  Santa  Fe  with  eggs,  chickens,  tobacco,  beans,  buckskin, 
dressed-skins,  etc.,  which  were  offered  as  a  ransom  for 
the  release  of  their  brethren,  the  prisoners.  The  Gover- 
nor was  so  impressed  by  the  demeanour,  and  also  per- 
haps by  the  number  of  the  petitioners,  that  he  agreed  to 
yield  to  their  request. 

During  the  preceding  eighty  years  the  Indians  had 
leagued  together  five  times  in  order  to  free  themselves 
from  the  domination  of  the  Spaniards,  but  each  time  they 
had  been  beaten  and  their  incipient  insurrections  crushed. 
Now  a  leader  and  a  patriot  was  to  arise  whose  personality 
was  such  that  he  was  able  to  dominate  his  people  and  ulti- 
mately win  for  them  the  independence  they  so  much  de- 
sired. Pope  was  a  native  of  San  Juan,  but  for  several 
years  had  resided  at  Taos.  He  was  a  medicine-man  who 
had  achieved  a  great  reputation  by  his  success  in  a  variety 
of  ways.  Personally  he  was  brave,  daring  and  physically 
strong.  His  mentality  was  so  powerful  and  his  personal 
influence  and  magnetism  so  great  that  he  was  able  to  quell 
all  jealousies  among  the  Indians,  and  soon  wielded  a 
power  not  only  over  the  mass  of  the  people  but  over  his 
brother  medicine-men  that  made  them  as  plastic  as  clay 
in  his  hands.  For  an  Indian  he  was  a  great  traveler. 
With  all  the  arts  of  diplomacy  and  religious  fervour  of 
an  enthusiast,  he  had  so  prevailed  upon  the  medicine- 
men of  the  Navahos,  Apaches  and  other  tribes  that  he 
had  been  admitted  into  their  secret  organizations,  and 
had  learned  all  their  most  wonderful  rites,  ceremonies  and 


The  Great  Pueblo  Rebellion  of  1680     27 

potent  "  medicine.''     Withal,  he  was  eloquent  with  a  pas- 
sion and  fervour  that  carried  everything  before  him. 

He  claimed  to  have  had  communications  from  Those 
Above  empowering  him  to  lead  his  people  in  an  uprising 
which  should  mean  the  complete  freedom  of  their  country 
from  the  hated  Spanish  oppressor.  As  a  proof  of  the  au- 
thority of  his  mission,  he  invited  the  principales  of  each 
pueblo  to  send  one  or  more  representatives  at  a  given 
time  that  they  might  hear  for  themselves  the  confirmation 
of  his  authority  to  accomplish  this  great  result  that  hith- 
erto had  seemed  impossible.  He  took  care  that  the  ap- 
pointed night  was  one  of  perfect  darkness.  No  moon 
gave  the  slightest  light  to  interfere  with  his  plans.  In 
the  farthest  recess  of  the  darkest  kiva  at  Taos  he  received 
the  delegates.  At  the  proper  moment,  to  which  he  had 
skillfully  led  up  by  his  graphic  eloquence,  two  of  his  most 
trusted  associates  suddenly  appeared  before  the  throng, 
already  thrilled  and  nerved  to  the  highest  tension,  in  such 
guise  as  would  have  startled  more  knowing  men  than 
these  simple-hearted  Indians.  Pope  had  learned  that  if 
he  smeared  the  bodies  of  his  associates  with  certain  phos- 
phorous substances  they  could  be  made  to  glow  in  the 
darkness,  especially  if  the  conspirators  held  an  extra  sup- 
ply of  the  sulphur  with  which  now  and  again  they  would 
rub  over  their  faces  and  bodies  and  thus  appear  to  be 
illuminated  with  new  fire.  These  two  men  had  been  so 
thoroughly  rehearsed  by  Pope  that  they  performed  their 
allotted  task  to  perfection.  They  danced  as  only  a 
trained  and  enthusiastic  religionist  could  dance,  and  then 
they  gave  messages  from  Those  Above  confirming  Pope's 
claims.  Their  dances,  songs,  and  messages  were  all  so 
strange,  so  awe-inspiring,  that  the  delegates  returned  to 
their  homes  thoroughly  impressed,  so  that  Pope's  instruc- 
tions were  carried  out  to  the  very  letter.     The  remarkable 


28    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

thing  of  the  whole  conspiracy  is  that  though  there  were 
a  number  of  the  Indians  who  had  accepted  the  faith  of 
the  Spaniards  and  had  become  Christians  and  many  of 
them  were  devotedly  attached  to  the  priests  and  their 
masters  and  mistresses,  not  one  of  them  was  found  —  so 
far  —  who  dared  to  betray  the  secret  of  the  uprising. 

At  this  time  there  were  fifteen  hundred  Spaniards  in 
New  Mexico,  about  five  hundred  of  whom  lived  in  Santa 
Fe.  This  five  hundred  had  about  an  equal  number  of 
Mexican  Indian  servants.  Bandelier  thus  describes  the 
town  as  it  appeared  at  that  time :  "  On  the  south  side 
of  the  little  river  there  was  no  town.  A  few  houses  oc- 
cupied by  Spanish  families  had  been  built  among  the  little 
huts  of  the  Indian  servants.  The  name  '  Analco,'  given 
to  the  quarters  about  San  Miguel,  dated  from  the  past 
century.  The  chapel  of  San  Miguel,  built  after  1636, 
loomed  up  over  scattered  fields  and  dispersed  buildings  of 
small  proportions.  The  town  proper  stood  all  on  the 
north  side.  The  town  was  somewhat  larger  than  it  is 
to-day.  It  extended  further  east.  Its  north  side  was 
occupied  by  the  '  Royal  Houses,'  as  the  palace  was  mostly 
called.  San  Francisco  street  was  the  '  Calle  Real,'  the 
principal  street  of  the  place.  A  street  intersected  it  at 
right  angles,  passing  through  the  buildings  now  owned  by 
Gov.  Prince,  and  continued  northward  along  the  east 
side  of  the  Palace.  It  terminated  in  a  broad  trail  lead- 
ing to  Tesuque.  The  Palace,  therefore,  had  a  wider 
fachada  than  the  edifice  that  bears  its  name  to-day,  and 
which  occupies  only  part  of  the  original  site.  Another 
street  ran  from  north  to  south  along  the  western  side  of 
the  royal  houses,  and  a  fourth  one  continued  west  of  the 
main  front  of  that  building,  so  that  the  town  lay  really 
west  of  the  present  square,  and  was  divided  into  three 
bodies  of  buildings,  one  between  San  Francisco  street 


The  Great  Pueblo  Rebellion  of  1680     29 


and  the  river,  another  north  of  that  street  and  south  of 
the  military  headquarters,  and  the  third  (composed  only 
of  a  few  dwellings),  on  the  site  of  headquarters  and 
north  of  it.  The  houses  were  not  contiguous.  Gardens, 
nay,  small  fields,  surrounded  each  residence.  Santa  Fe 
formed  a  long  triangle  tapering  gradually  to  the  west, 
the  eastern  side  of  which  was  marked  by  the  parochial 
church  and  its  convent.  The  site  of  that  church,  the 
foundations  of  which  were  laid  in  1622,  is  the  same  now 
occupied  by  the  cathedral."  The  other  Spaniards  were 
scattered  on  farms  and  settlements  from  Algodones  on  the 
south  as  far  north  as  Taos,  and  from  the  east  as  far  as 
Santo  Domingo  to  Zuni  and  Hopi  on  the  west.  There 
were  only  a  few  soldiers  and  two  small  cannons  with  a 
small  quantity  of  ammunition  at  Santa  Fe,  and  this  was 
the  only  place  that  made  the  slightest  pretense  of  being 
fortified. 

At  least  twenty  thousand  Pueblo  Indians  were  pledged 
to  the  uprising.  One  fact  alone  shows  the  generalship 
and  dominating  power  of  Pope.  The  uprising  had  been 
fixed  for  the  night  of  the  new  moon,  August  28th,  but 
two  Christian  Indians  at  Tesuque  had  twice  warned  the 
padre  that  great  danger  hovered  over  him  and  all  the 
"Gray  Gowns"  and  "Long  Beards"  (as  the  Indians 
called  the  Franciscan  priests  and  warriors)  in  New  Mex- 
ico. The  padre  hurried  to  Santa  Fe  to  alarm  the  Gover- 
nor. Pope's  faithful  spies  informed  him  of  this  fact. 
He  was  wise  enough  to  know  the  result  of  a  premature 
discovery  of  his  plans  in  that  it  would  allow  time  for 
preparations  for  defense.  Indeed,  Governor  Otermin  at 
once  took  measures  for  the  fortification  of  the  capital 
and  sent  messengers  to  gather  in  all  the  scattered  Span- 
iards. But  this  time  the  Spaniards  were  dealing  with  a 
master  mind.     Pope's   messengers   were   sent   scurrying 


30    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

over  the  country  almost  as  soon  as  the  Governor's,  and 
at  the  same  moment  that  the  warning  was  given  the  up- 
rising took  place,  eighteen  days  ahead  of  the  allotted 
time.  Now  ensued  scenes  of  cruelty  and  slaughter  that 
only  an  Indian  country  can  witness.  Aroused  to  despera- 
tion by  over  a  century  of  stern  subjugation,  the  Indians 
tortured,  slew,  and  mutilated  every  Spaniard  in  the  coun- 
try that  they  could  lay  hands  upon.  A  few  maidens  only 
were  spared,  and  these  were  to  be  given  as  wives,  as  re- 
wards to  Pope's  chief  henchmen.  Priests,  women,  and 
children  fell  under  the  murderous  blades  of  the  Indian 
warriors  whose  work  of  extermination  went  on  with 
unrelenting  ferocity.  Eighteen  of  the  twenty-five  priests 
in  the  various  missions  were  slain  and  three  hundred  and 
eighty  Spaniards  immediately  fell.  The  Governor  gath- 
ered together  the  inhabitants  of  Santa  Fe  and  fortified 
the  buildings  and  enclosure  on  the  present  site  of  the  old 
palace.  On  the  two  towers  at  the  corners  small  guns 
were  stationed,  but  the  ground  was  badly  chosen.  The 
Governor,  however,  made  a  brave  defense,  and  when  the 
Indians  completely  surrounded  him  and  sent  two  crosses, 
a  white  one  which  signified  peace  and  the  immediate 
withdrawal  of  the  Spaniards  from  the  country,  and  a  red 
one  indicating  war  and  extermination,  Otermin  chose  the 
red  one,  and  on  the  20th  of  August,  after  the  water-supply 
had  been  shut  off  and  the  horses  and  animals  began  to 
suffer  and  die,  made  a  bold  sortie  in  which  a  number  of 
Indians  were  killed  and  forty-seven  captured.  The  next 
day  these  forty-seven  prisoners  were  executed  in  the 
plaza  in  full  sight  of  the  Indian  forces  on  the  top  of 
what  is  now  Marcy  Hill.  There  was  now  but  one  hope 
for  the  Spaniards  and  that  was  to  march  over  the  weary 
three  hundred  miles  to  El  Paso  through  a  country  filled 
with  hostile  Indians,  where  all   food  supplies  had  been 


II :    "tip 


The  Great  Pueblo  Rebellion  of  1680     31 

either  carried  away  or  destroyed.  With  their  sick  and 
wounded  the  march  began.  It  was  an  official  evacuation 
of  the  country;  an  open  confession,  for  the  time  being,  at 
least,  of  defeat.  With  scanty  provisions  the  fugitives 
suffered  greatly  from  hunger.  At  Isleta  they  were  com- 
pelled to  halt  and  send  forward  to  El  Paso  for  food,  from 
which  point  four  wagon-loads  of  corn  were  sent  to  their 
relief.  They  finally  decided  to  encamp  at  San  Lorenzo, 
about  three  miles  from  El  Paso,  where  wood  and  water 
could  be  obtained.  From  here  they  sent  a  report  to  the 
viceroy  of  their  expulsion.  While  they  received  a  little 
help  from  the  settlers  at  El  Paso  in  the  way  of  beef  and 
corn,  their  condition  soon  became  pitiable.  Their  fight- 
ing men  reduced  to  a  mere  handful,  they  were  harassed 
by  the  hostile  Indians  and  upon  the  women  and  children 
devolved  much  of  the  work  of  making  habitable  the  few 
huts  that  were  hastily  built. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  Indians  were  elated  beyond 
measure  at  the  speedy  success  of  their  revolt.  Their 
rejoicings  became  frantic  revelings.  We  know  how,  even 
in  a  civilized  country,  people  become  almost  frantic  over 
a  victory  of  their  troops,  so  we  can  form  some  concep- 
tion as  to  the  great  excitement  that  was  felt  by  the  In- 
dians when  they  realized  that  their  country,  which,  for 
over  a  century  and  a  quarter,  had  been  subjugated  by 
these  haughty  white  men,  was  at  last  free  from  their  hated 
presence,  and  they  left  to  themselves  again.  They  danced 
their  wildest  dances  and  gave  themselves  up  to  the  de- 
struction, as  far  as  was  possible,  of  everything  that  sug- 
gested Spain  or  the  hated  worship  of  the  Gray  Gowns. 
Practically  nothing  was  spared.  They  plundered  every- 
thing that  they  could  use  and  burned  everything  that  re- 
mained. They  set  fire  to  the  church  and  convent,  mak- 
ing burning  heaps  of  the  furniture,  relics  and  other  equip- 


32     New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

ment.  Everything  was  destroyed  except  the  adobe  walls, 
which  still  remain,  in  the  restored  San  Miguel  chapel. 
Then  they  danced  their  ancient  dances  and  made  offerings 
of  flour,  seeds,  grain,  and  thousands  of  pahos,  or  prayer 
sticks,  to  their  native  gods,  to  appease  them  for  the  loss 
of  their  supremacy  during  the  period  of  Spanish  domi- 
nation, and  at  the  same  time  to  assure  them  that  hence- 
forth they  and  they  alone  should  be  worshiped.  They 
then  went  to  a  near-by  stream  and  with  large  bowls  of 
suds  made  from  the  amole,  the  native  soap-weed,  washed 
and  scrubbed  themselves  from  top  to  toe  to  remove  every 
trace  and  effect  of  Christian  baptism. 

Instigated  by  their  medicine-men,  they  were  particu- 
larly vindictive  in  their  treatment  of  the  padres.  Father 
Juan  Jesus,  the  old  priest  at  Jemez,  was  awakened  in  the 
dead  of  night,  was  dragged  from  his  bed,  and  made  to 
carry  the  Indians  on  his  back,  as  he  crawled  on  his  hands 
and  knees,  until  he  fell  dead.  His  body  was  cast  out  and 
devoured  by  the  wolves.  At  Acoma  the  padre  was 
stripped  naked,  dragged  about  the  streets  with  a  rope 
around  his  neck,  then  beaten  to  death  with  clubs  and 
stones.  At  Zuni,  the  priest  was  dragged  from  his  cell, 
stripped,  stoned  and  shot  on  the  plaza  and  his  body  burned 
in  the  church. 

The  official  reports  show  that  four  hundred  and  one 
Spaniards  perished  during  the  massacre,  including  twen- 
ty-one priests  and  seventy-three  able-bodied  men.  The 
number  of  fugitives  who  escaped,  including  several  hun- 
dred friendly  Indians  of  the  Piros  and  Tewas,  was  1,946. 

For  a  time  after  the  rebellion,  Pope's  power  was  su- 
preme, then  dissensions  arose  among  the  northern  and 
southern  Pueblos  and  in  the  native  wars  that  ensued  the 
Apaches  and  Navahos  made  a  number  of  attacks  upon 
them  for  the  purpose  of  plunder. 


The  Great  Pueblo  Rebellion  of  1680     33 

In  the  meantime  Governor  Otermin,  in  1681,  attempted 
to  reconquer  New  Mexico,  but  neither  his  efforts  nor 
those  of  his  successors  were  carried  on  with  the  vigour 
that  was  essential  to  success  until  in  1691  Don  Diego  de 
Vargas  Zapata  Lujan  was  appointed  Governor.  He 
practically  reestablished  Spanish  rule  in  New  Mexico  and 
the  story  of  his  reconquest  is  one  of  great  bravery,  though 
naturally  it  destroyed  the  independence  and  freedom  of 
the  pueblo  people. 


CHAPTER  V 

THE    WORLD'S    GREATEST    AUTOGRAPH    ALBUM, 
INSCRIPTION    ROCK 

One  of  the  world's  harmless  —  nay,  indeed,  useful, 
educative,  as  well  as  emotional  —  fads,  which  had  its  pe- 
riod of  exaltation  and  then  of  recession,  yet  has  never 
entirely  died  out,  is  that  of  obtaining  the  autographs  of 
the  great,  near-great,  would-be-great,  those  who  deem 
themselves  great,  or  simply  our  friends  and  acquaintances, 
either  in  guest-books,  birthday-books,  or  books  especially 
contrived  for  the  purpose. 

In  New  Mexico,  however,  is  an  autograph  album  larger 
than  any  in  existence  in  any  other  part  of  the  world,  and 
unique,  in  that  it  has  but  three  or  four  pages,  and  these 
were  formed  by  Nature  centuries  and  centuries  ago.  To 
the  Mexicans  of  the  country  it  is  known  as  El  Morro. 
Attention  was  first  of  all  called  to  it  by  Lieut.  J.  H.  Simp- 
son, who,  in  1849,  under  Lieut.-Col.  J.  M.  Washington, 
made  a  military  reconnaissance  from  Santa  Fe,  into  the 
Navaho  country.     The  following  is  his  story  of  his  visit : 

A  couple  of  miles  further,  meeting  in  the  road  Mr.  Lewis,  who  was 
waiting  for  me  to  offer  his  services  as  guide  to  a  rock  upon  the  face 
of  which  were,  according  to  his  repeated  assertions,  half  an  acre  of 
inscriptions,  many  of  them  very  beautiful,  and  upon  its  summit  some 
ruins  of  a  very  extraordinary  character,  I  at  once  fell  in  with  the 
project,  and  obtained  from  the  colonel  commanding  the  necessary 
permission.  Taking  with  me  one  of  my  assistants,  Mr.  R.  H.  Kern, 
ever  zealous  in  an  enterprise  of  this  kind;  the  faithful  Bird,  an 
employee  who  had  been  with  me  ever  since  I  left  Fort  Smith  — 
Mr.  Lewis  being  the  guide  —  and  a  single  pack-animal,  loaded  with 

34 


Photograph   bx    U .  S.   Forest  Service. 

EL    MORRO  —  INSCRIPTION    ROCK. 


The  World's  Greatest  Autograph  Album    35 

a  few  articles  of  bedding,  a  few  cooking  utensils,  and  some  provi- 
sions—  we  diverged  from  the  command,  with  the  expectation  of 
not  again  meeting  it  until  we  should  reach  the  Pueblo  of  Laguna, 
from  seventy  to  eighty  miles  distant.  There  were  many  in  the 
command  who  were  inclined  to  the  belief  that  Lewis's  representa- 
tions were  all  gammon.  In  regard  to  the  extent  of  the  inscriptions,  I 
could  not  but  believe  so  too ;  but.  as  respects  the  fact  of  there  being 
some  tolerable  basis  for  so  grandiloquent  a  description,  I  could 
not,  reasoning  upon  general  principles  of  human  nature,  reject  it. 
'Mr.  Lewis  had  been  a  trader  among  the  Navahos,  and,  according 
to  his  statement,  had  seen  these  inscriptions  in  his  journeyings  to 
and  from  their  country.  And  now  he  was  ready  to  conduct  me  to 
the  spot.  How  could  I  doubt  his  sincerity?  I  could  not;  and  my 
faith  was  rewarded  by  the  result. 

Bearing  off  slightly  to  the  right  from  the  route  of  the  troops, 
we  traversed  for  eight  miles  a  country  varied,  in  places,  by  low 
mesas,  blackened  along  their  crests  by  outcrops  of  basalt,  and  on 
our  left  by  fantastic  white  and  red  sandstone  rocks,  some  of  them 
looking  like  steamboats,  and  others  presenting  very  much  the  ap- 
pearance of  fagades  of  heavy  Egyptian  architecture.  This  distance 
traversed,  we  came  to  a  quadrangular  mass  of  sandstone  rock,  of 
pearly  whitish  aspect,  from  two  hundred  to  two  hundred  and  fifty 
feet  in  height,  and  strikingly  peculiar  on  account  of  its  massive 
character  and  the  Egyptian  style  of  its  natural  buttresses  and 
domes.  Skirting  this  stupendous  mass  of  rock,  on  its  left  or  north 
side,  for  about  a  mile  the  guide,  just  as  we  had  reached  its  eastern 
terminus,  was  noticed  to  leave  us  and  ascend  a  low  mound  or  ramp 
at  its  base,  the  better,  as  it  appeared,  to  scan  the  face  of  the  rock, 
which  he  had  scarcely  reached  before  he  cried  out  to  us  to  come 
up.  We  immediately  went  up,  and,  sure  enough,  here  were  in- 
scriptions, and  some  of  them  very  beautiful ;  and  although,  with 
those  which  we  afterwards  examined  on  the  south  face  of  the  rock, 
there  could  not  be  said  to  be  half  an  acre  of  them,  yet  the  hyperbole 
was  not  near  so  extravagant  as  I  expected  to  find  it.  The  fact  then 
being  certain  that  here  were  indeed  inscriptions  of  interest,  if  not 
of  value,  one  of  them  dating  as  far  back  as  1606,  all  of  them  very 
ancient,  and  several  of  them  very  deeply  as  well  as  beautifully  en- 
graven, I  gave  directions  for  a  halt  —  Bird  at  once  proceeding  to 
get  up  a  meal,  and  Mr.  Kern  and  myself  to  the  work  of  making 
fac-similes  of  the  inscriptions. 

These  inscriptions  are,  a  part  of  them,  on  the  north  face  of 
the  rock,  and  a  part  on  the  south  face. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  the  greater  portion  of  these  inscriptions 
are  in  Spanish,  with  some  little  sprinkling  of  what  appeared  to  be 


36    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

an  attempt  at  Latin,  and  the  remainder  in  hieroglyphics,  doubtless  of 
Indian  origin. 

The  face  of  the  rock,  wherever  these  inscriptions  are  found,  is  of 
a  fair  plain  surface,  and  vertical  in  position.  The  inscriptions,  in 
most  instances,  have  been  engraved  by  persons  standing  at  the 
base  of  the  rock,  and  are,  therefore,  generally  not  higher  than  a 
man's  head. 

After  making  copies  of  all  the  inscriptions  Mr.  Kern  engraved 
the  following  on  the  cliff : 

Lt.J-ESi'«fsonySA.<uRH.K«ri\  Art'ut. 
visited  anicap.ei  tWi^yptions, 


"  Lt.  J.  H.  Simpson,  U.  S.  A.,  and  R.  H.  Kern,  artist,  vis- 
ited and  copied  these  inscriptions,  September  17,  18th,  1849." 


The  perfection  of  the  inscriptions  is  remarkable. 
They  are  as  distinctive  in  their  character  as  the  hand- 
writings of  men  on  paper,  and  all  of  them  are  remarkably 
well  done.  The  surprising  thing  is  that  after  all  these 
years  they  are  still  so  perfect;  but  this  is  accounted  for 
by  the  peculiar  character  of  the  rock  and  the  fact  that  it 
does  not  crumble  when  exposed  to  the  weather.  It  is 
of  very  fine  grain  and  comparatively  easy  to  scratch  into, 
and  the  two  walls  upon  which  the  inscriptions  occur  being 
practically  protected  from  storms,  these  rock  autographs 
remain  almost  as  clear  and  as  perfect  as  the  day  they 
were  written. 

The  inscriptions  themselves  are  of  decided  historic 
value.  The  major  part  of  them  are  on  the  front  of  El 
Morro,  but  one  finds,  on  rounding  the  eastern  escarp- 
ment, that  he  can  reach  a  deep  recess  which  gives  a  well 
defined  south  wall.     Here  Simpson  found  "  a  cool  and 


The  World's  Greatest  Autograph  Album    37 

capacious  spring,"  and  doubtless  the  conquistadorcs  also 
found  it  and  made  it  the  site  of  their  camps.  For,  on  the 
walls  above  and  near  by  are  several  of  the  more  important 
inscriptions.  The  earliest  of  these  is  that  of  Juan  de 
Onate.  It  has  been  there  nearly  three  hundred  years  and 
is  clearly  readable.  It  is  the  oldest  inscription  as  far  as 
we  know. 


Here  is  its  original  and  translation : 

Paso  por  aqui  el  adelantando  de  don  Jan 

Passed  by  here  the  officer  Don  Juan 

de  Ohate  el  descubrimento  de  la  mar 

de  Onate  to  the  discovery  of  the  sea 

del  sur  a  16  de  Abril  ao  1606. 

of  the  south  on  the  16th  of  April,  year  1606. 

In  our  historical  chapters  the  interesting  story  of  this 
brave  explorer  is  given.  It  was  on  his  return  from  his 
memorable  trip  from  San  Gabriel  de  los  Caballeros  in 
New  Mexico,  in  1604,  with  thirty  men,  to  the  Gulf  of 
California,  that  he  stopped  at  El  Morro  and  the  inscrip- 
tion was  written. 

The  two  names  at  the  lower  left  corner  of  the  Onate 
inscription  —  Casados,  1727,  and  Juparelo  —  were  un- 
doubtedly placed  there  much  later,  and  as  yet  no  historian 
has  told  us  anything  about  them. 


38    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

Near  to  Onate's  inscription  is  one  which  has  caused 
considerable  discussion.  The  date  looks  as  if  it  might 
be  1526,  but  as  no  white  man  had  ever  entered  New 

Voraqvip/KZo  tliAljenes  CD* 
Jtsepn.de  Vayba  Mscon?eks 
6l#rioqueUiuo£\Cau"io  del 
XejriQasuchstFK  a  iLdeJela 
deJ>26_Ano$- 

Mexico  as  early  as  that  it  must  be  that  the  figure  that 
looks  somewhat  like  a  five  was  intended  for  a  seven. 
Thus  read  the  translation  of  the  autograph  is  as  follows : 

By  here  passed  the  Ensign  Joseph  de  Payba  Basconzelos,  the 
year  that  he  brought  the  Council  of  the  Kingdom  at  his  own  ex- 
pense, on  the  18th  of  Feb.,  1726. 

Close  by  are  several  historic  autographs.  One  is  of 
Juan  Gonzales,  1629.  This  soldier  was  one  of  thirty 
who  accompanied  the  New  Father  Custodian  Perea,  who 
had  just  been  appointed  to  take  charge  of  the  missionary 
work  of  the  Franciscans  in  New  Mexico.  With  Perea 
was  the  Father  Solicitor  (Manso),  and  four  other  priests 
and  two  lay  religious  who  were  assigned  to  the  western 
pueblos  of  Acoma,  Zuni,  and  Hopi.  They  had  ten 
wagons,  four  hundred  cavalry  horses  and  the  soldiers 
were  well  armed,  hence,  possibly,  the  reason  for  their 
kind  reception  at  Acoma  and  Zuni.  At  the  former  place 
they  were  "  spontaneously  proffered  admission,"  writes 
Perea  in  his  Verdadera  Relation,  published  in  1632,  and 
at  Zuni  "  its  natives,  having  tendered  their  good  will  and 
their  arms  received  them  with  festive  applause  —  a  thing 
never  before  heard  of  in  those  regions,  that  so  intractable 


The  World's  Greatest  Autograph  Album    39 

and  various  nations  with  equal  spirit  and  semblance 
should  receive  the  Frailes  of  St.  Francis  as  if  a  great 
while  ago  they  had  communicated  with  them." 

Governor  Don  Francisco  Manuel  de  Silva  Nieto  un- 
doubtedly was  with  this  party,  for  Perea  tells  of  his 
issuing  an  edict  at  Zuni,  which  shows  the  strictness  with 
which  the  Spaniards  sought  to  regulate  the  conduct  of 
their  soldiers  toward  the  Indians.  This  edict  read  that 
"  no  soldier  should  enter  a  house  of  the  pueblo,  nor  trans- 
gress in  aggrieving  the  Indians,  under  the  penalty  of  his 
life."  Furthermore,  it  said  that  "  to  give  that  people  to 
understand  the  veneration  due  to  the  priests,  all  the  times 
that  they  arrived  where  they  were,  the  Governor  and  sol- 
diers kissed  their  feet,  falling  upon  their  knees,  caution- 
ing the  Indians  that  they  should  do  the  same  as  they  did ; 
for  as  much  as  this  the  example  of  the  superiors  can  do." 

That  this  noisy  welcome  of  the  Spaniards  and  the 
priest  did  not  change  the  real  feeling  of  the  Zunis  is 
proven  by  the  inscription  later  referred  to,  where  a  party 
was  sent  two  years  later  to  avenge  the  murder  of  Father 
Letrado. 

It  was  on  his  return  journey  from  this  trip  that  Gov- 
ernor Nieto's  inscription  was  placed  on  El  Morro. 

^U*sJe8uiitMos2J)£fi«></tlonode.  \G  -2^/ospuseenM/?aSuwc/w,pi 

Here  is  a  translation : 

The  Most  Illustrious  Sir  and  Captain  General  of  the  provinces  of 
New  Mexico  for  the  King  our  Master,  passed  by  here  on  the  return 
from  the  villages  of  Zuni  on  the  29th  of  July  of  the  year  of  1629; 


40    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

and  them  (the  Indians)  he  put  in  peace  at  their  request  (they), 
asking  his  favour  as  vassals  of  His  Majesty.  And  anew  they  gave 
obedience ;  of  which  he  did  with  persuasiveness,  zeal,  and  prudence, 
like  such  a  most  Christian  (effaced),  such  a  careful  and  gallant 
soldier  of  unending  and  exalted  memory. 

A  month  later  another  autograph  was  added  to  the 
"  album  "  (see  original  photo),  and  this  pretty  clearly  re- 


jt 


f.Ai  timador 

Do*  fr<m#>v  oW^  Sitoa  tfto 
QiAtYoyppuobk  irtne  CJa  *^t0 
Su  Etaco ^yniubhabk  jQ$n  Bfflor 
Contos  Carros  del  ReJ  Westro  Se*o» 
Cosq  ^guesofo  el  R,so  CiurfEfecto 
DeQ"ba?sto    C     Seisoierno^BeimejyNutu? 
Quesb)/  ffljkuni  Paseyia  Ft  lleue 

veals  the  trouble  the  Governor  was  meeting  with  at  Zuni. 
Perea  tells  that  the  devil  urged  the  Indians  "  with  men- 
aces, that  they  should  eject  this  strange  priest,  Fr.  Figue- 
redo,  from  their  country.  They  put  it  into  operation,  all 
manifesting  themselves  in  such  manner  that  already  they 
did  not  assist  as  they  were  wont,  to  bring  water  and  wood, 
nor  did  one  of  them  appear.  By  night  was  heard  a  great 
din  of  dances,  drums,  and  caracoles,  which  among  them 
is  signal  of  war."  But  in  this  imminent  danger  God 
came  to  Fray  Roque's  succour,  and  to  make  a  long  story 
short,  the  missionary  saw  that  the  Indians  were  "  well 
catechized  and  sufficiently  fit,"  whereupon  "  he  ordered  to 
be  built  in  the  plaza  a  high  platform,  where  he  said  mass 
with  all  solemnity,  and  baptized  them  on  the  day  of  St. 
Augustine  (seemingly  the  day  of  St.  Augustine  of  Hippo, 
August  28,  not  St.  Augustine  of  England,  May  26)  of 


The  World's  Greatest  Autograph  Album    41 

the  year  1629,  singing  the  Te  Deum  Laudamus,  etc.;  and 
through  having  so  good  a  voice,  the  Father  Fray  Roque 
—  accompanied  by  the  chant  —  caused  devotion  in  all." 
Thus  were  the  Zuni  Christianized  for  the  time  being,  al- 
though, needless  to  say,  they  did  not  understand  a  word 
the  good  fraile  said,  nor  know  the  meaning  of  any  part 
of  the  rites  he  celebrated  for  their  benefit. 

Following  is  a  translation  of  Governor  Silva  Nieto's 
second  inscription : 

Here  passed  the  Governor  Don  Francisco  Manuel  de  Silva  Nieto, 
whose  indubitable  prowess  and  valour  have  already  conquered  the 
impossible,  with  the  wagons  of  Our  Lord  the  King,  a  thing  which 
he  only  accomplished,  August  9  (One  Thousand)  Six  Hundred, 
Twenty  and  Nine.  That  ( ?  it  be  seen)  that  I  passed  to  Zuni  and 
carried  the  Faith. 

From  this  autograph  we  can  assume  that  the  Governor 
had  scarcely  had  time  to  return  to  Santa  Fe  —  thirty-six 
leagues  from  Acoma  and  fifty-six  leagues  from  Zuni,  be- 
fore he  was  called  back  to  "  conquer  the  impossible  "  with 
his  "  indubitable  prowess  and  valour." 

Other  autographs  show  that  other  pueblos,  besides  Zuni, 
were  giving  the  Spaniards  trouble.  For  instance,  the  one 
by  Governor  Martinez. 

The  translation  is  as  follows : 

In  the  year  1716  on  the  26th  of  August,  passed  by  here  Don  Felix 
Martinez,  Governor  and  Captain  General  of  this  Kingdom,  to 
the  reduction  and  conquest  of  the  Moquis  (the  Hopis),  and  in 
his  Company  the  Reverend  Father  Fray  Antonio  Camargo,  Custodian 
and  Judge-Ecclesiastic. 


42    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

This  was  the  attempt  made  by  Governor  Martinez  to 
bring  the  recalcitrant  Hopis  back  to  their  allegiance  after 
the  rebellion  in  which  they  had  slain  their  Franciscan 
Missionaries.  But  it  failed,  and  Martinez  was  recalled 
from  his  high  position  in  disgrace. 

D/228E>SfhBI7J//   fljU> 
Je6o  arju/  El  JH/£©  £  DrDaJvim 


uni 


The  first  visit  of  a  bishop  to  New  Mexico  is  recorded 
in  a  fine  inscription.     The  translation  reads : 

On  the  28th  day  of  September  of  1737,  reached  here  the  most 
illustrious  Senor  Doctor  Don  Martin  De  Elizaecochea,  Bishop  of 
Durango,  and  on  the  29th  day  passed  on  to  Zuni. 

This  refers  to  one  of  the  official  visits  made  by  the 
Bishop  of  Durango,  in  whose  district  the  whole  of  New 
Mexico  belonged,  and  to  which  it  remained  attached  until 
1852. 

Just  above  that  of  the  Bishop  and  slightly  to  the  left 
are  two  other  autographs,  doubtless  of  members  of  his 
party.  Between  them  is  a  fairly  well  engraved  repre- 
sentation of  an  ornamented  cross.  The  larger  inscrip- 
tion reads  as  follows :  "  On  the  28th  day  of  September, 
1737,  reached  here  '  B  '  (supposed  to  represent  Bachiller 


The  World's  Greatest  Autograph  Album    43 

—  Bachelor  —  of  Arts)  Don  Juan  Ygnacio  De  Arra- 
sain;  "  and  the  other  merely  says,  "  There  passed  by  here 
Dyego  Belagus." 

One  of  the  finest  of  the  autographs  is  that  of  General 
Don  Diego  de  Vargas,  who,  in  1692,  reconquered  New 
Mexico  after  the  Pueblo  rebellion  of  1680. 

Here  is  the  original : 

jtowfof  fern,  fiXfl^ 

S  wm>.q,(Jonqtnsto 

meocicoASV  corta, 

The  translation  is  as  follows : 

Here  was  the  General  Don  Diego  de  Vargas,  who  conquered 
for  our  Holy  Faith  and  for  the  Royal  Crown  (of  Spain)  all  the 
New  Mexico,  at  his  own  expense  (in  the),  year  of  1692. 

Slightly  north  of  the  autograph  of  Governor  de  Vargas 
is  one  of  the  expedition  sent  by  Governor  Francisco  Mar- 
tinez de  Baeza.  Long  before  the  great  rebellion  of  1680 
the  missionaries  were  having  trouble  with  the  Indians. 
The  head  missionary  at  Zuni  was  Fray  Cristobal  de 
Quiros  and  he  had  appealed  for  help.  The  original  in- 
scription is  clear  and  readable.  It  was  evidently  written 
by  a  skilful  hand. 


44    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

%sarr\gsyor(i(\w 
Or  tl  cap\hr\(fui?Mc/iu 

fttyefQiUdavtidvqo  nam 


The  translation  is  as  follows : 

We  pass  by  here,  the  Lieutenant-Colonel  and  the  Captain  Juan 
de  Archuleta,  and  the  Lieutenant  Diego  Martin  Barba  and  the 
Ensign  Augustin  de  Ynojos,  in  the  year  1636. 

In  a  slight  depression  near  by  is  the  inscription  of  an- 
other soldier  of  the  expedition. 

JUAN    GARSYA    1636 

Of  one  inscription  Lummis  writes : 

Two  quaint  lines,  in  tiny  but  well-preserved  letters,  recall  a 
pathetic  story.  It  is  that  of  a  poor  common  soldier,  who  did 
not  write  his  year.  B'«t  history  supplies  that.  He  was  one  of 
the  Spanish  "  garrison  "  of  three  men  left  to  guard  far-off  Zuni,  and 
slain  by  the  Indians  in  the  year  1700.  Not  far  away  is  the  autograph 
of  the  leader  of  the  "force"  of  six  men  who  went  in  1701  from 
Santa  Fe  to  Zuni  (itself  a  desert  march  of  three  hundred  miles) 
to  avenge  that  massacre,  the  Captain  Juan  de  Urribarri.  He  left 
merely  his  name. 

The  hardest  inscription  of  all  to  read  is  this : 


The  World's  Greatest  Autograph  Album    45 


At  first  sight  it  seemed  impossible  that  one  should  de- 
cipher it.     Lummis  says  of  it : 

It  was  never  deciphered  until  I  put  it  into  the  hands  of  a  great 
student  of  ancient  writings  —  though  after  he  solved  the  riddle  it 
is  clear  enough  to  any  one  who  knows  Spanish.  Its  violent  ab- 
breviations, the  curious  capitals  with  the  small  final  letters  piled 
"  overhead,'  and  its  reference  to  a  matter  of  history  of  which  few 
Americans  ever  heard,  combined  to  keep  it  long  a  mystery.  Reduced 
to  long-hand  Spanish,  it  reads : 

Se  pasaron  a  23  de  Marzo  de  1623  anos  a  la  benganza  de  muerte  del 
Padre  Letrado.     Lujan. 

They  passed  on  the  23rd  of  March  of  the  year  1623  to  the  aveng- 
ing of  the  death  of  the  Father  Letrado.    Lujan. 

One  unfamiliar  with  the  history  of  the  country  could 
scarce  dream  of  the  tragedy  and  romance  connected 
with  these  two  lines.  Father  Francisco  de  Letrado  was 
born  in  Spain,  became  fired  with  missionary  zeal,  was  sent 
out  to  Mexico  and  thence  to  the  Jumanos,  a  tribe  that 
lived  east  of  the  Rio  Grande.  It  is  generaly  supposed 
now  that  he  was  sent  in  1623  to  Zuni,  to  the  pueblo  of 
Hawikuh,  there  being  another  priest  stationed  at  Halona 
—  these  being  the  two  principal  of  the  seven  towns  of 
Zuni.     On  Sunday,  February  22,  1632,  says  Hodge, 


46    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

(a  hundred  years  to  a  day  before  Washington  was  born),  the 
Indians  appeared  to  delay  in  attending  mass.  Fray  Francisco,  im- 
patient, and  probably  of  a  fiery  and  zealous  nature,  went  out  to 
urge  them.  He  met  some  idolaters,  and  began  to  chide  them. 
He  saw  at  once  that  they  were  bent  on  killing  him,  so  he  knelt 
down,  holding  in  his  hands  a  small  crucifix,  and  continued  the 
remonstrance  while  in  this  attitude.  The  Indians  shot  him  dead 
with  arrows,  carried  off  the  corpse  and  scalped  it,  parading  the 
scalp  afterward  at  the  usual  dances. 

Almost  immediately  steps  were  taken  to  avenge  his 
death.  Francisco  de  la  Mora  Ceballos,  Governor  at  the 
time,  despatched  a  handful  of  soldiers  under  his  Maestro 
de  Campo,  Tomas  de  Albizu,  together  with  a  few  priests. 
As  they  stopped  at  Inscription  Rock  over  night,  doubt- 
less, one  of  the  soldiers,  Lujan,  carved  the  two  lines. 
The  mission  was  successful,  for,  although  the  Zunis  had 
fled  to  the  summit  of  Taiyoallane,  they  were  prevailed 
upon  to  come  down  peaceably  and  reaffirm  their  alle- 
giance. 

While  the  major  part  of  these  inscriptions  but  confirm 
the  documentary  evidences  we  possess  of  New  Mexican 
history,  there  are  a  few  incomplete  inscriptions,  the  sig- 
nificance of  which  we  should  not  understand  were  it  not 
for  the  documents.  For  instance,  an  almost  obliterated 
inscription  reads : 

"  Paso  por  aqui  Fran°  de  an  .  .  .  alina  .  .  ." 

This  was  undoubtedly  Francisco  de  Anaia  Alinazan, 
an  officer  of  no  great  moment,  yet  who  served  under 
Governors  Otermin,  Cruzate,  and  De  Vargas,  and  knew 
all  the  struggles  of  the  great  rebellion.  He  was  at  Santa 
Clara  pueblo  when  the  massacre  of  1680  occurred,  with 
three  companions,  all  of  whom  were  slain.  He  escaped 
by  swimming  across  the  Rio  Grande. 

A  striking  autograph,  framed  in  a  square  reads : 


The  World's  Greatest  Autograph  Album    47 

On  the  5th  of  June,  1709  there  passed  by  here,  bound  for  Zuni, 
Ramon  Paez  Hurtado. 

On  the  other  wall  another  Hurtado  wrote : 


jUom  E3)N  DOS  \1%K  SOPOTAflUi 

I  rt^rvjuNE^ZHniADOVJS^ADOT 


^fnsucowamil  (aba  fatflnuxfa  \ 

^  +1  ■r-^ii..    ^»-7-     J 


On  the  14th  of  July,  1736  there  passed  by  here  General  Juan  Paez 
Hurtado,  inspector,  and  in  his  company  the  Corporal  Joseph 
Truillo. 

Here  are  three  other  inscriptions,  of  which,  at  some 
future  time,  some  historian  may  give  us  interesting  par- 
ticulars. 

Baftob^nannnsm 

■H- 

^  fO^<ft3natiotyelyi</ea. 

y$a  no  a- 1  fJ*Jt  tk  m  tr^al 
dado  - — 


Earlier  even  than  the  Spanish  inscriptions  are  a  great 
number  undoubtedly  made  by  the  Indians,  possibly  those 


48    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

who  once  inhabitated  the  ruins,  so  many  of  which  are 
found  hereabout.  These  are  mere  pictographs  of  snakes, 
deer,  bear,  wild  sheep,  moons,  suns,  crescents,  Greek  frets, 
swastikas,  lightning  and  of  men  and  women,  etc. 

If  what  some  people  believe  be  true,  viz.,  that  the 
spirits  of  those  who  once  visited  or  occupied  a  place 
often  return  to  it,  what  a  wonderful  gathering  of  ex- 
plorers and  notable  historic  characters  might  one  not 
find  here  at  some  auspicious  time ! 

I  do  know  this  as  a  fact,  that,  sleeping  one  night  here, 
I  dreamed  as  though  this  spiritualistic  idea  were  true.  I 
saw  Juan  de  Oiiate  and  conversed  with  him,  and  talked 
for  long  hours  with  De  Vargas,  listening  to  his  bitter 
complaints  against  the  king  who  failed  to  realize  the  hard- 
ships he  had  borne  and  the  dangers  he  had  encountered 
in  bringing  the  rebellious  Pueblos  back  to  their  allegiance. 
I  heard  the  camped  soldiers  talking  of  what  they  would 
do  to  the  murderers  of  Padre  Letrado,  at  Zuni,  and  in 
another  near-by  group  saw  the  padres  huddled  over  a 
tiny  fire,  and,  hovering  over  them,  listened  to  their  loving 
counsels  —  their  hopes  that  by  the  love  of  God  they  might 
be  able  to  soften  the  hard  hearts  of  these  murderous 
heathen  and  lead  them  securely  and  safely  into  the  bosom 
of  Mother  Church. 

Yes,  indeed,  I  was  a  thoughtful  man  all  the  following 
day,  as  I  silently  rode  on  to  Zuni.  Possessed  of  the 
spirit  of  the  past  I  lived  in  the  past  and  became  one  with 
those  who  made  the  history  of  New  Mexico. 

While  the  inscriptions  of  El  Morro  are  its  chief  at- 
traction there  are  other  features  connected  with  it  that 
alone  would  demand  serious  attention.  Seen  from  the 
front  it  presents  a  massive,  unscalable  wall.  Indeed  it  is 
a  noble  triangular  block  of  sandstone,  of  pearly  whitish 
colour,  with  sheer  walls  over  two  hunded  feet  high  and 


The  World's  Greatest  Autograph  Album    49 

suggesting  in  its  stupendous  grandeur  a  temple  or  castle 
built  after  the  style  of  the  Egyptians,  but  immeasurably 
larger.  The  walls  are  seamed  and  marked  with  the 
storms  and  conflicts  of  many  centuries  and  are  thousands 
of  feet  long,  while  its  towerlike  appearance  in  front  is 
matched  by  a  singularly  majestic  piece  of  nature  sculptur- 
ing in  the  rear. 

It  is  near  this  mass  of  sculptured  rock  that  we  find  the 
"  castle  "  is  not  so  impregnable  as  it  looks,  for,  to  our 
surprise,  after  scaling  a  fairly  steep  wall  and  reaching 
the  summit,  we  find  the  mass  is  cleft  in  twain,  and  there 
is  a  ravine  which  seems  as  if  it  had  been  stopped  in 
the  making.  It  thrusts  itself  directly  into  the  solid 
sandstone,  but  does  not  come  through  to  the  front.  In 
this  hidden  recess  a  small  army  might  conceal  itself,  and 
a  million  people  could  pass  in  front  of  El  Morro  and 
never  even  dream  of  their  existence. 

To  our  further  surprise  we  find  that  on  the  top  of  each 
side  of  the  cleft  rock  a  ruined  pueblo  is  perched.  Simp- 
son describes  these  in  his  report,  but  they  are  so  similar 
to  the  ruins  found  elsewhere  dotted  over  a  large  part  of 
New  Mexico  as  to  require  no  detailed  description  here. 
Of  them,  however,  he  naively  remarks  : 

What  could  have  possessed  the  occupants  of  these  villages  to 
perch  themselves  so  high  up,  and  in  such  inaccessible  localities,  I 
cannot  conceive,  unless  it  were,  as  it  probably  was,  from  motives  of 
security  and  defense. 

Inscription  Rock  is  now  a  National  Monument.  Its 
inscriptions  and  ruins  are  no  longer  at  the  mercy  of  fool- 
ish vandals  who  think  it  "  smart  "  to  ruin  a  priceless  his- 
toric memorial  to  gratify  a  momentary  and  senseless  ca- 
price. 

As  the  years  progress  this  great  rock, —  El  Morro  — 


50    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

will  grow  in  interest,  for  around  it  is  enshrined  so  much 
of  the  romance  of  prehistoric  time,  and  also  of  those  brave 
and  daring  Spaniards  whose  lust  for  gold  led  them  to  the 
conquest  of  this  inhospitable  land. 

In  order  to  make  El  Morro  more  accessible  to  the 
traveling  public  the  automobile  road,  leading  south  from 
Gallup,  has  been  much  improved.  By  way  of  Ramah, 
where  the  present  custodian,  Evon  Z.  Vogt,  resides,  the 
trip  can  be  made  in  three  or  four  hours,  and  in  about 
six  by  way  of  the  terraced-city  of  Zuni.  The  spring 
located  on  the  south  side,  near  where  the  Ofiate  inscrip- 
tion is  located,  has  been  developed  after  being  buried  in 
the  drifting  sand  and  lost  for  many  years.  A  watering 
trough  has  been  erected,  and  an  anti-freeze  pump  put  in 
for  pumping  the  water.  A  handsome  new  camp-house 
for  visitors  has  been  constructed  of  logs,  well  equipped 
with  table  and  benches,  and  it  is  large  enough  to  accom- 
modate not  only  a  good-sized  party  but  their  automobile 
also.  There  is  abundant  firewood  in  the  natural  timber 
close  by.  Thus  the  temporary  resting-place  of  the  brave 
conquistadores  is  converted  into  a  stopping-place  for  the 
automobile  and  railway  travelers  as  they  dash  westward 
across  the  continent,  making  the  trip  with  ease  and  com- 
fort in  as  many  days  as  it  originally  occupied  Juan  de 
Ofiate  months. 


CHAPTER  VI 

MY   ADVENTURES  AT    ZUNI 

The  title  to  this  chapter  is  not  original.  It  was  used 
by  Lieut.  Frank  H.  dishing  for  three  illustrated  articles 
published  respectively  in  the  December,  1882,  February 
and  May,  1883,  Century.  While  I  would  not  presume 
to  suggest,  even,  that  my  adventures  in  any  way  equal 
those  of  Cushing,  they  certainly  were  interesting  to  me 
and  seem  worth  recounting. 

The  Zuni  group  of  pueblos  is  the  most  historic  pueblo 
group  of  the  country.  It  is  now  definitely  ascertained 
to  be  the  far-famed,  long-sought  "  Seven  Cities  of 
Cibola;"  which  Coronado  hunted  for  in  1542.  It  was 
here  that  he  was  wounded,  and  from  here  he  sent  out  his 
captains  who  discovered  the  Hopi  pueblos,  and  the  Grand 
Canyon  of  the  Colorado  River. 

It  was  in  the  chief  town  of  the  Zuni  group  that  Cush- 
ing decided  to  live  when  Major  Powell  sent  him  forth 
to  gain  an  insight  into  their  whole  social,  religious,  and 
ceremonial  life.  In  the  years  he  lived  here  he  did  more 
to  penetrate  their  secrets,  and  give  to  the  world  an  under- 
standing of  their  innerness,  as  well  as  of  their  beliefs  and 
outward  actions  and  observances,  than  had  been  gained 
by  all  the  students  of  the  world  prior  to  him.  We  never 
can  overestimate  the  value  of  the  work  Cushing  accom- 
plished. He  opened  the  way,  gave  the  world  the  key, 
to  a  wealth  of  Ethnologic  lore  of  which,  up  to  that  time, 
it  had  been  altogether  ignorant. 

51 


52    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

I  have  made  several  trips  to  Zuni.  On  one  occasion, 
after  driving  from  Grant's  Station,  on  the  main  line  of 
the  Santa  Fe  to  Las  Tinajas,  the  Home  of  Don  Leopoldo 
Mazon,  who  had  kindly  proffered  his  services,  my  pho- 
tographer and  I  were  outfitted  by  him.  That  trip  in 
itself  was  an  adventure  never  to  be  forgotten.  The  con- 
veyance was  a  "  rattlety-bangy  "  buckboard,  and  our  fiery 
steeds  were  two  almost  unbroken  broncos.  The  vaqueros 
caught  the  latter  in  the  corral,  brought  them  to  the  front 
of  the  casa  (where  we  had  a  hundred  miles  square  of 
plain,  mesa  and  foothill  to  roam  over),  blindfolded  them, 
and  threw  on  the  harness  to  the  accompaniment  of  much 
snorting,  jumping  aside,  kicking  and  trembling.  As  soon 
as  the  scary  (scary  themselves  and  making  me  scary) 
creatures  were  duly  harnessed,  the  lines  were  placed  in  my 
shaking  fingers  and  I  was  told  to  drive.  The  blinds 
were  withdrawn  and  in  a  moment  I  saw  before  me  a 
chaos  of  horse-flesh,  dancing,  jumping,  leaping,  standing 
on  hind  legs,  prancing  sideways,  engaging  in  every  kind 
of  dance-step  known,  and  many  not  yet  introduced,  and 
doing  stunts  that  would  have  been  worth  a  fortune  to  the 
owner  of  a  circus  horse.  Yet,  somehow,  we  didn't 
seem  to  be  traveling.  My  fiery  and  untamed  steeds  were 
good  buckers,  they  were  expert  stallers,  they  were  un- 
surpassed in  antics  generally,  and  knew  their  business  as 
balkcrs,  but  travelers?  —  that  was  a  word  and  thought 
unknown  to  them  while  harnessed  to  the  awful  contrap- 
tion that  was  dangling  behind  them. 

What  was  to  be  done  ? 

My  ever-ready  and  obliging  friend,  Don  Leopoldo, 
called  to  the  vaqueros.  Almost  before  I  could  guess  what 
was  going  to  happen  the  loop  of  a  rawhide  riata  was 
thrown  around  the  neck  of  each  animal,  the  vaqueros  went 
ahead,  fastening  their  riatas  to  the  horns  of  their  saddles 


My  Adventures  at  Zuni  53 

and  stretching  them  tight,  and  then,  spurring  their  horses, 
they  effectually  choked  and  dragged  my  recalcitrant  bron- 
cos into  submission.  They  were  compelled  to  travel 
willy-nilly,  while  I  "  pushed  "  on  the  lines  behind.  After 
ten  or  fifteen  minutes  of  this  they  seemed,  all  at  once, 
to  wake  up  to  a  new  thought.  Why  should  their  necks  be 
stretched  by  these  fiendish  vaqueros  ahead  of  them,  while 
other  vaqueros  and  Indians  lashed  them,  kicked  them, 
yelled  at  them,  on  their  sides,  and  a  white  man  (myself) 
shouted  from  the  rear?  They  came  to  the  conclusion  it 
would  be  easier  to  run  away  than  submit  to  such  indigni- 
ties. So  off  they  started,  evidently  willing  to  go  at  full 
speed.  But,  unfortunately,  there  was  no  unity  of  pur- 
pose in  their  movements.  One  wished  to  rush  off  to 
the  southwest,  the  other  to  the  southeast.  But  it  couldn't 
be  done.  They  were  fastened  together.  They  must  go 
with  "  one  accord  "  and  this  "  accord  "  did  not  exist. 
So  they  leaped  and  jumped  and  struggled  and  bucked, 
now  stretching  wide  apart,  and  then  rushing  together 
again,  so  that  they  nearly  knocked  each  other  down  and 
made  the  pole  crack,  but  it  was  of  no  avail.  And  during 
their  endeavour  the  vaqueros  ahead,  as  relentless  as  the 
tax-collector  and  death,  kept  a  taut  line  on  their  necks 
and  pulled  them  onwards.  Thus  we  battled,  human  wills 
against  animal  wills,  but  intellect,  craft,  cunning,  with  the 
aid  of  riatas  and  brute-force  conquered  in  the  end,  and 
the  poor  animals,  sweating  and  still  snorting,  trembling 
and  cowed,  settled  down  to  go  ahead  as  the  reins  directed. 
When  we  stopped  for  noon-day  lunch  they  seemed  glad 
of  the  rest,  yet,  when  we  began  to  harness  them  again  to 
the  bnckboard  we  came  near  to  having  a  runaway.  My 
companion  had  to  stand  at  their  heads,  while  I  disen- 
tangled tugs  from  squirming  and  hair-trigger  legs  and 
feet,  which  danced  about  in  a  most  inconsequential  man- 


54    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

ner,  ready  to  shoot  out  in  my  direction  with  the  force  and 
speed  of  a  catapult  at  the  slightest  provocation.  I  had 
seen  men  hit  on  legs,  arms,  and  collar-bones  with  such 
feet  and  had  heard  the  snap  of  humerus,  femur,  clavicle, 
etc.,  and  I  had  no  hankering  after  such  experience.  I 
had  also  seen  men  hit  in  the  stomach, —  possibly  in  the 
solar  plexus, —  and  doubled  up  like  jack-knives,  instantly, 
and  like  Bret  Harte's  Abner  Kean  of  Angel's,  "  the  sub- 
sequent proceedings  interested  them  no  more."  Person- 
ally I  preferred  to  keep  my  stomach,  my  solar  plexus  and 
my  intestines  intact.  Yet  to  travel  we  must  be  harnessed 
up.  Hence  I  was  "  distraught  betwixt  my  fears  and  my 
desires."  In  due  time,  however,  success  crowned  our 
efforts,  and  we  were  "  all  set."  But  where  were  our 
vaqueros  to  make  the  animals  travel?  The  hour's  rest 
had  given  the  still-unbroken  pair  time  to  forget  their 
team-work,  and  now,  one  wanted  to  leap  ahead,  while 
the  other  evinced  a  strong  desire  either  to  sit  down,  or  to 
"  back  "  clear  to  the  north  pole.  Fortunately  my  com- 
panion and  I  both  had  whips.  So  we  "  laid  on,"  yelling 
and  shouting  at  the  same  time  and  in  the  same  breath.  I 
think  our  sudden  onslaught  must  have  startled  the  beasts 
for  they  bent  their  heads  to  it,  "  buckled  in,"  and  did  their 
level  best  to  run  away.  So  long  as  the  road  was  clear, 
fairly  level,  and  we  were  able  to  stay  with  the  wagon  — 
no!  dear  reader,  not  stay  on  our  seats,  for  we  were  jolted, 
jounced  and  thrown  out  of  them  worse  than  automobile 
riders  with  numerous  successive  "  Thank  ye,  ma'ams !  " 
—  we  let  them  run.  Why  not  ?  The  scared  creatures 
were  bound  to  let  off  superfluous  steam  somehow ;  they 
had  surplus  electric  energy  to  dispose  of.  Why  not  let 
them  expend  both  in  getting  us  in  the  direction  we  wished 
to  travel?  So  I  bid  them  "Go  to  it,"  and  placed  no 
tightening  hand  upon  the  rein. 


My  Adventures  at  Zuni 55 

Ere  long  they  sobered  down ;  the  roads  were  now  sandy 
and  long,  uphill  and  down,  and  montonously  wearisome. 
Before  nightfall  I  could  crack  the  whip  about  their  ears, 
aye,  even  lay  it  vigorously  upon  their  flanks,  with  scarce 
a  response.  And  when  we  reached  our  camping-ground 
that  night  they  were  jaded,  tired,  dejected,  wretched- 
looking  creatures,  appearing  as  if  they  had  been  driven 
a  thousand  miles,  were  kept  by  miserly  wretches,  who 
never  gave  them  proper  food,  and  who  beat  and  abused 
them  abominably. 

The  following  morning  we  reached  the  top  of  the  last 
hill.  There  before  us  was  spread  out  the  long-looked- 
for  plain  of  Zuni.  It  was  a  great  red  and  yellow  stretch 
that  reached  into  the  far-away  hill-lands  to  the  west  and 
south,  distorted  by  mirages  and  sand-clouds ;  whilst  to 
our  left,  a  mile  or  two  away,  rising  from  numberless  red 
sandstone  foothills,  towered  a  rock  island  far  larger  than 
either  Katzimo  or  Acoma,  possibly  a  thousand  feet  high 
and  two  or  three  miles  in  length  along  its  flat  top,  which 
in  places  was  chiseled  and  carved  by  the  weather  into 
pinnacles,  spires,  domes  and  minarets. 

This  was  the  famous  Tai-yo-al-la-ne,  called  by  Cushing, 
Thunder  Mountain,  to  the  summit  of  which  the  Zunis 
retired  and  fortified  themselves  after  the  rebellion  of 
1680.  It  was  to  be  the  scene  of  one  of  my  adventures, 
somewhat  exciting  and  a  little  dangerous,  but  withal  al- 
luring and  fascinating,  which  later  on  in  this  chapter  I 
shall  relate. 

The  entire  north  side  of  the  valley  was  closed  in  by  a 
section  of  canyon-seamed  brown  sandstone  mesas  mantled 
in  pinion  and  juniper,  contrasting  richly  with  the  sky, 
which  was  deep  turquoise  and  perfectly  cloudless.  Out 
from  the  middle  of  the  rocky  hill  and  line  of  sand-hills 
on  which  we  stood,  emerged  the  Zuni  River,  but  it  was 


56    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

only  a  tiny  streamlet,  winding  its  way  westward  across 
the  sandy  plain,  glistening  and  shimmering  in  the  after- 
noon sun,  until  it  seemed  to  lose  itself  in  the  shadows  of 
a  good-sized  hummock  which  arose  above  the  horizon  line 
of  the  far-away  distance. 

This  hummock  was  Zuni.  With  field-glasses  one  could 
clearly  see  the  seven-storied,  terraced,  community  house, 
on  the  various  and  many  roofs  of  which  pigmy  human  be- 
ings were  moving  about,  those  on  the  top  terrace  being 
clearly  silhouetted  against  the  pure  blue  of  the  New  Mex- 
ico sky. 

In  an  hour  or  so  our  jaded  horses  were  glad  to  stop 
on  the  further  side  of  the  tiny  river,  just  opposite  the 
pueblo. 

The  first  impression  one  has  of  Zuni  is  of  a  number 
of  long,  flat-roofed,  adobe-covered  houses,  but  connected 
with  one  another  in  extended  rows  and  squares,  piled 
one  above  another,  lengthwise  and  crosswise,  but  getting 
smaller  as  they  ascend,  and  each  tier  receding  from  the 
one  in  front,  like  the  steps  of  a  rude-shaped  pyramid, 
with  a  base  that  stretches  out  somewhat  indefinitely  in 
each  direction.  This  was  the  monster  community  house, 
which  dominates  all  the  other  houses  in  Zuni. 

Now  let  us  read  Cushing's  description,  for  it  is  as  per- 
fect to-day  as  when  it  was  written : 

Everywhere  this  structure  bristled  with  ladder-poles,  chimneys, 
and  rafters.  The  ladders  were  heavy  and  long,  with  carved  slab 
cross-pieces  at  the  tops,  and  leaned  at  all  angles  against  the  roofs. 
The  chimneys  looked  more  like  huge  bamboo-joints  than  anything 
else  I  can  compare  them  with,  for  they  were  made  of  bottomless 
earthen  pots,  set  one  upon  the  other  and  cemented  together  with 
mud,  so  that  they  stood  up,  like  many-lobed,  oriental  spires,  from 
every  roof-top.  Wonderfully  like  the  holes  in  an  ant-hill  seemed 
the  little  windows  and  door-ways  which  everywhere  pierced  the 
walls  of  this  gigantic  habitation ;  and  like  ant-hills  themselves  seemed 


My  Adventures  at  Zuni 57 

the  curious  little  round-topped  ovens  which  stood  here  and  there 
along  these  walls  or  on  the  terrace  edges. 

All  round  the  town  could  be  seen  irregular  large  and  small 
adobe  or  dried-mud  fences,  inclosing  gardens  in  which  melon, 
pumpkin  and  squash  vines,  pepper  plants  and  onions  were  most 
conspicuous.  Forming  an  almost  impregnable  belt  nearer  the  vil- 
lage were  numerous  stock  corrals  of  bare  cedar  posts  and  sticks.  In 
some  of  these,  burros,  or  little  gray,  white-nosed,  black-shouldered 
donkeys,  were  kept ;  while  many  others,  with  front  legs  tied  closely 
together,  were  nosing  about  over  the  refuse  heaps.  Bob-tailed  curs 
of  all  sizes,  a  few  swift-footed,  worried-looking  black  hogs,  some 
scrawny  chickens,  and  many  eagles  —  the  latter  confined  in  wattled 
stick  cages,  diminutive  corrals,  in  the  corners  and  on  the  house-tops 
—  made  up  the  visible  life  about  the  place. 

The  next  morning  I  climbed  to  the  top  of  the  pueblo.  As  I 
passed  terrace  after  terrace  the  little  children  scampered  for 
sundry  sky-holes,  through  which  long  ladder-arms  protruded,  and 
disappeared  down  the  black  apertures  like  frightened  prairie  dogs ; 
while  the  women,  unaccustomed  to  the  sound  of  shoes  on  their  roofs, 
as  suddenly  appeared  head  and  shoulders  through  the  openings,  gazed 
a  moment,  and  then  dropped  out  of  sight. 

Five  long  flights  passed,  I  stood  on  the  topmost  roof.  Spread  out 
below  us  were  the  blocks  of  smoothly  plastered,  flat-roofed  adobe 
cells,  red  and  yellow  as  the  miles  of  plain  from  which  they  rose, 
pierced  by  many  a  black  sky-hole,  and  ladder-poles  and  smoke- 
bannered  chimneys  were  everywhere  to  be  seen.  In  abrupt  steps  they 
descended  toward  the  west,  north  and  central  plaza,  while  east- 
ward they  were  spread  out  in  broad  flats,  broken  here  and  there 
by  deep  courts.  The  whole  mass  was  threaded  through  and  through 
by  narrow,  often  crooked,  passage  ways  or  streets,  more  of  them 
lengthwise  than  crosswise,  and  some,  like  tunnels,  leading  under 
the  houses  from  court  to  court  or  street  to  street. 

The  view  extended  grandly  from  the  out-lying,  flat  lower  ter- 
races, miles  away  to  the  encircling  mesa  boundaries,  north,  east, 
and  south,  while  westward  a  long,  slanting  notch  in  the  low  hills 
was  invaded  to  the  horizon  by  the  sand-plain  through  which,  like 
molten  silver,  the  little  river  ran. 

Every  school-boy  sketches  a  map  of  the  Zuni  basin  when  he  at- 
tempts with  uncertain  stroke  to  draw  on  his  slate  a  cart-wheel.  The 
city  itself  represents  the  jagged  hub,  whence  the  radiating,  wavering 
trails  form  the  spokes,  and  the  surrounding  mesas  and  hills,  the 
rim.  Let  some  crack  across  the  slate  and  through  the  middle  of  the 
picture  indicate  the  river,  and  your  map  is  complete. 


58    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

In  and  out,  on  the  diverging  trails,  the  Indians  were  passing 
to  and  from  their  distant  fields,  some  on  foot,  some  on  burro-back, 
with  others  of  the  little  beasts  loaded  from  tail  to  ears  with  wood, 
blankets  full  of  melons,  pumpkins  and  corn,  or  great  panniers 
of  peaches.  A  series  of  them  away  out  on  the  bare  plain,  mere 
moving  specks  in  the  distance,  appeared  like  a  caravan  crossing 
a  desert  waste.  Occasionally  a  half-nude  rider,  mounted  on  a 
swift-footed  pony  would  come  dashing  in  from  the  hills.  Far 
away  he  seemed  a  black  object  with  a  long  trail  of  golden  dust 
behind,  but  his  nearer  approach  revealed  remarkable  grace  of 
motion  and  confusion  of  streaming  hair  and  mane.  There  was 
an  occasional  heavily  laden  ox-cart,  with  urchins  sprawling  over 
the  top,  a  driver  on  either  side,  and  leading  up  the  rear  a  mounted 
donkey  or  two;  while  away  to  one  side,  more  picturesque  than  all 
this  a  band  of  dust-shrouded  sheep  straggled  over  the  slopes  toward 
their  mesa  pastures,  followed  by  their  solitary  herder  and  his  dog. 

Strangely  out  of  keeping  with  the  known  characteristics  of  the 
Indian  race  were  the  busy  scenes  about  the  smoky  pueblo.  All 
over  the  terraces  were  women,  some  busy  in  the  alleys  or  at  the 
corners  below,  husking  great  heaps  of  many-colored  corn,  buried 
to  their  bushy,  black  bare  heads  in  the  golden  husks,  while  children 
romped  in,  out,  over  and  under  the  flaky  piles ;  others  bringing  the 
grain  up  the  ladders,  in  blankets  strapped  over  their  foreheads, 
spread  it  out  on  the  terrace  roofs  to  dry.  Many,  in  little  groups, 
were  cutting  up  peaches  and  placing  them  on  squares  of  white 
cloth,  or  slicing  pumpkins  into  long  spiral  ropes  to  be  suspended 
to  dry  from  the  protruding  rafters. 

One  of  these  busy  workers  stopped,  deposited  her  burden,  and 
hailed  a  neighboring  house-top.  Almost  immediately  an  answering 
echo  issued  from  the  red  stony  walls,  and  forthwith  a  pair  of  bare 
shoulders  seemed  to  shove  a  tangled  head  and  expectant  coun- 
tenance up  through  an  unsuspected  sky-hole  into  the  sunshine.  In 
one  place,  with  feet  over-hanging  the  roof,  a  woman  was  grace- 
fully decorating  some  newly  made  jars,  and  heaps  of  the  rude 
but  exquisite  bric-a-brac  scattered  around  her, —  while,  over  in 
a  convenient  shadow,  sat  an  old  blind  man,  busy  spinning  on  his 
knee  with  a  quaint  bobbin-shaped  spindle-whorl. 

Out  near  the  corrals  old  women  were  building  round-topped 
heaps  of  dried  sheep  dung,  and  depositing  therein  with  nice  care 
their  freshly  painted  pots  and  bowls  for  burning.  Others,  blankets 
in  hand,  were  screening  their  already  blazing  kilns  from  the  wind, 
or  poking  the  fires  until  eddying  columns  of  black  pungent  smoke 
half  hid  them  from  my  view,  and  made  them  seem  like  the  "witches 
and  cauldrons"  of  child-lore. 


Photograph   by   George  Wharton   James. 

MAN  AND  BOY,   ZUNI. 


My  Adventures  at  Zuni 59 

Children  were  everywhere,  chasing  one  another  over  the  terraces, 
up  and  down  ladders,  through  alleys,  and  out  again  into  the  sun- 
light. Some,  with  bows  and  arrows,  sticks  and  stones,  were 
persecuting  in  mock  chase  dogs  and  hogs  alike,  as  attested  by 
their  wild  shrieks  of  delight,  or  the  respondent  ceaseless  yelps  arising 
seemingly  from  all  quarters  of  the  town  at  once. 

Along  the  muddy  river  below  the  long  southern  side  of  the 
pueblo,  more  of  these  youngsters  were  ducking  one  another,  or 
playing  at  various  games  on  the  smooth,  sandy  banks.  Women,  too, 
were  there  engaged  in  washing  wool  or  blankets  on  the  flat  stones, 
or  in  cleansing  great  baskets  of  corn.  I  was  attracted  thither  and 
observed  that  these  primitive  laundresses  had  to  raise  the  water 
with  little  dams  of  sand.  I  smiled  as  the  thought  occurred  that 
the  first  expedition  of  Americans  to  Zuni  had  been  sent  here  by 
Government  to  explore  this  self-same  river,  relative  to  its  navigabil- 
ity. 

These  sights  led  Cushing  to  soliloquize,  or  to  philo- 
sophize, as  follows : 

How  strangely  parallel,  I  thought,  have  been  the  lines  of  develop- 
ment in  this  curious  civilization  of  an  American  desert,  with  those 
of  Eastern  nations  and  deserts.  Clad  in  blanket  dresses,  mantles 
thrown  gracefully  over  their  heads,  each  with  a  curiously  decorated 
jar  in  her  hand,  the  women  came  one  after  another  down  the 
crooked  paths.  A  little  passage-way  through  the  gardens,  between 
two  adobe  walls  to  our  right,  led  down  rude  steps  into  the  well, 
which,  dug  deeply  in  the  sands,  had  been  walled  up  with  rocks, 
like  the  Pools  of  Palestine,  and  roofed  over  with  reeds  and  dirt. 
Into  this  passage-way  and  down  to  the  dark,  covered  spring  they 
turned,  or  lingered  outside  to  gossip  with  new  comers  while 
awaiting  their  chances,  meanwhile  slyly  watching,  from  under 
their  black  hair,  the  strange  visitors  from  "  Wa-sin-to-na."  These 
water-carriers  were  a  picturesque  sight,  as,  with  stately  step  and 
fine  carriage  they  followed  one  another  up  into  the  evening  light, 
balancing  their   great   shining   water-jars    on   their   heads. 

Let  us  seek  to  know  more  of  the  Zuni  of  to-day  as 
it  is  in  its  everyday  life.  We  meet  a  Zuni  man.  He  is 
not  tall,  say  about  five  feet  six  inches,  solidly  built,  with 
the  appearance  and  carriage  of  an  athlete.  His  dress  is 
of  white  calico  and  consists  of  a  kind  of  shirt  or  jacket, 


60    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

and  a  pair  of  trousers  that  are  slit  from  the  knee  down. 
He  wears  blue  stockings,  kept  in  place  with  vividly  scarlet 
garters  —  bands  about  two  inches  wide  and  beautifully 
woven  —  and  his  feet  are  covered  with  thick-soled  buck- 
skin moccasins.  On  his  head  is  a  handkerchief  tied 
around  the  forehead,  and  called  by  the  Spaniards, 
"  banda."  As  we  meet  him  he  gives  us  a  word  of  greet- 
ing and  advances.  We  take  his  hand  and  breathe  on 
it.  At  this  he  smiles  and  does  the  like  to  us.  Now  we 
notice  that  he  has  several  strings  of  shell-beads  around 
his  neck,  in  which  are  placed  pieces  of  turquoise,  and  a 
leather  belt  around  his  waist,  on  which  are  fastened  sev- 
eral large  silver  disks,  chased  or  engraved  into  certain 
curious  and  striking  designs. 

The  women  are  smaller  than  the  men,  with  shapely 
arms,  hands,  and  feet.  None  of  the  younger  ones  are 
corpulent,  though  some  of  the  older  ones  become  quite 
stout.  They  are  good-looking,  have  large  limpid  black 
and  brown  eyes,  which  are  generally  laughing  and  ten- 
der. To  their  friends  they  are  kindly  and  affectionate, 
motherly  and  compassionate,  loyal  and  helpful. 

Their  dress  is  picturesque  in  the  extreme.  The  gown 
is  home-woven  —  generally  by  the  men  —  of  black  diag- 
onal cloth,  embroidered  top  and  bottom  in  blue.  It  is  in 
one  piece,  and  is  folded  once  and  sewn  up  to  within  a 
short  distance  from  the  top,  and  again  the  top  edges  are 
caught  together  for  a  few  inches.  The  right  arm  passes 
through  the  opening  and  thus  the  right  shoulder  is  draped 
while  the  left  arm  is  bare  as  the  gown  passes  under  the 
arm.  It  generally  reaches  well  down  to  the  knee.  Of 
late  years  a  cotton  garment  with  high  neck  and  long 
sleeves  is  worn  under  the  gown,  but  at  all  ceremonials 
this  is  discarded.  At  the  waist  a  long  belt  is  wrapped 
several  times.     This  is  of  bright  red  and  blue  colour  and 


My  Adventures  at  Zuni 61 

its  ends  have  a  long  fringe.  As  this  end  is  tucked  under 
and  the  fringe  falls  it  adds  a  very  attractive  and  pic- 
turesque touch. 

Another  indispensable  article  of  dress,  the  use  of  which 
a  white  man  cannot  comprehend,  is  the  pi'toni,  a  piece  of 
calico  —  sometimes  made  of  two  very  large  bandana 
handkerchiefs  sewed  together  —  tied  in  front  of  the  neck 
and  allowed  to  fall  over  the  shoulders.  And  she  must 
be  poor  indeed  who  has  no  necklace  of  silver  beads  (na- 
tive made),  with  several  strings  of  shell-bead  or  wam- 
pum. The  legs  are  wrapped  around  and  around  with 
wide  pieces  of  buckskin,  giving  them  a  heavy  and  clumsy 
look,  though  they  set  off  the  smallness  of  the  feet  which 
are  clothed  in  buckskin  moccasins. 

The  hair  is  banged  all  around  down  almost  to  the 
shoulders,  and  then  tucked  up  in  front  under  the  fore- 
head to  allow  the  face  to  appear. 

The  children  are  many  and  various,  of  all  sizes  and 
both  sexes,  but  all  alike  healthy,  happy,  vigorous  and 
naked  until  they  reach  the  age  of  six  or  seven.  When  I 
first  visited  them,  more  than  twenty  years  ago,  they  ran 
about  nude  until  they  reached  the  age  of  puberty. 

Owing  to  their  isolation  the  Zuni  Indians  have  pre- 
served a  strong  individuality.  Like  the  Navahos  they  are 
readily  distinguished.  They  have  few  mixed  bloods 
among  them. 

Their  natural  impulse  is  towards  the  highest  type  of 
hospitality.  They  do  not  invite  you ;  they  expect  you. 
In  other  words,  if  you  enter  a  Zuni  house  and  express 
your  intention  of  staying  in  the  town  for  any  length  of 
time  it  is  taken  for  granted  that  you  will  make  that 
your  home  as  long  as  you  stay.  Food  is  prepared  for 
you,  and  happy  indeed  are  they  when  you  accept  and 
eat   with  them.     I   well   remember  my   first  meal   with 


62    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

Tsnahey  and  his  family.  He  was  then  Governor  of  the 
Zunis.  The  food  was  spread  out  on  our  table  —  which 
was  the  floor.  It  was  the  time  of  green  corn,  and  one 
dish  was  of  a  mush  made  of  ground  green  corn,  flavoured 
with  certain  wild  herbs.  It  was  delicious.  Then  a  kind 
of  mutton  stew  was  served,  consisting  of  small  cubes  of 
mutton,  squash,  beans,  corn,  and  chili  pepper,  which  latter 
they  use  largely  in  many  of  their  dishes. 

We  also  had  "  hewe  "  or  wafer  bread  and  tortillas, 
the  latter  made  in  Mexican  fashion.  Tsnahey  was  some- 
what "  civilized,"  so  coffee  was  served,  sweetened  with 
white  man's  sugar.  Then  we  had  for  dessert  stewed 
dried  peaches  —  these  latter  gained  from  the  Havasupai 
Indians,  who  dwell  deep  down  in  a  secluded  canyon,  not 
far  from  the  Grand  Canyon  of  the  Colorado  River,  to 
which  their  canyon  is  tributary. 

It  was  an  interesting  meal  in  which  the  most  scrupu- 
lous care  was  taken  to  please  the  guest,  to  see  that  he  was 
served  first  and  abundantly,  and  that  everything  was  to 
his  pleasure. 

Let  us  watch  Tsnahey's  wife  make  the  wafer  bread, 
which  is  so  strange  and  interesting  at  first  sight.  It  is 
made  of  corn  meal  finely  ground.  Of  this  a  soft  batter 
is  made.  Now  it  is  ready  to  bake.  A  large  flat  stone  is 
raised  so  that  a  fire  can  be  made  underneath  it.  When 
the  stone  is  hot  enough,  a  piece  of  mutton  tallow  is  rap- 
idly rubbed  over  its  surface,  and  then  the  "  hewe  "-maker 
dips  her  fingers  in  the  batter  and  rapidly  rubs  them  over 
the  hot  surface.  Almost  the  moment  she  touches  the  slab 
the  batter  cooks  into  a  thin,  wafer-like  sheet,  so  that,  at 
two  or  three  dips  and  passages  over  the  surface,  there 
appears  a  large  sheet  of  the  bread.  Before  it  is  per- 
fectly dry  it  is  folded  over  and  over  again  until  it  is 
about  the  size  of  a  shredded-wheat  biscuit  and  then  it  is 


WE-WHA,     THE     REMARKABLE     ZUNI     CHARACTER     WHO     VISITED 
PRESIDENT    CLEVELAND. 


My  Adventures  at  Zuni 63 

ready  to  be  eaten.  Naturally  it  is  dainty,  delicate,  and 
makes  a  very  palatable  bread. 

The  sleeping-arrangements  of  the  Zunis  are  quite  sim- 
ple. In  one  corner  of  every  well-appointed  house  hangs 
a  long  pole,  suspended  by  thongs  of  rawhide  at  each  end. 
This  is  poetically  termed  "  the  pole  of  the  soft  stuff." 
The  term  soft  stuff  includes  sheep  and  goat  skins,  bear, 
coyote,  mountain-lion,  badger,  and  other  wild-beast  skins, 
together  with  the  robes  the  Zunis  themselves  weave  or 
purchase  from  the  Navahos.  While  a  few  blankets  are 
woven  by  the  Zunis  they  have  almost  abandoned  the  art, 
as  they  are  better  potters  than  weavers. 

It  is  appropriate  here  that  I  give  a  brief  account  of 
We-wha,  a  noted  Zuni  woman,  whose  death  caused  a 
trial  for  witchcraft  as  related  in  another  chapter.  She 
was  a  remarkable  woman,  a  fine  blanket  and  sash  maker, 
an  excellent  cook,  an  adept  in  all  the  work  of  her  sex, 
and  yet  strange  to  say,  she  was  a  man.  There  never  has 
been,  as  yet,  any  satisfactory  explanation  given,  as  far 
as  I  know,  of  the  peculiar  custom  followed  by  the  Pueblos 
of  having  one  or  two  men  in  each  tribe,  who  forswear 
their  manhood  and  who  dress  as,  act  like,  and  seemingly 
live  the  life  of,  women.  Wewha  was  one  of  these.  Mrs. 
Stevenson,  in  referring  to  what  she  owed  to  Wewha  for 
her  help  in  opening  up  the  secrets  of  Zuni  life,  writes 
in  such  a  way  that  no  reader  can  tell  whether  she  re- 
garded her  as  man  or  woman.  She  said  after  many  other 
persons  to  whom  she  was  indebted  "  And  Wewha,  the 
strongest  character  and  the  most  intelligent  of  the  Zuni 
tribe  within  the  knowledge  of  the  writer." 

So  bright  was  she  that  President  Cleveland  invited 
her  to  visit  him  at  the  White  House,  where  she  was  his 
honoured  and  interesting  guest  for  several  days.  On  my 
various  visits  to  Zuni  she  always  befriended  me,  and  it 


64    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

was  the  comments  of  her  own  friends,  Zunis,  that  first 
made  me  "  wise  "  to  the  situation  as  to  her  sex.  She  was 
an  expert  weaver,  and  her  "  pole  of  soft  stuff "  was  laden 
with  the  work  of  her  loom  —  blankets  and  dresses  ex- 
quisitely woven,  and  with  a  delicate  perception  of  colour- 
values  that  delighted  the  eye  of  a  connoisseur.  Her 
sashes,  too,  were  the  finest  I  ever  saw,  and  proud  indeed 
is  that  collector  who  can  boast  of  one  of  her  weave  among 
his  valued  treasures. 

Her  living-room  and  kitchen,  where  cooking  the  corn, 
grinding,  and  all  other  daily  duties  were  carried  on, 
was  one  large  room,  here  shown,  with  Wewha  at  the 
grinding  trough.  She  seldom  sang  at  her  grinding,  but  at 
a  word  from  her,  I  have  heard  as  many  as  a  half  hun- 
dred voices  all  raised  at  once  in  one  wonderful  unison 
of  melody,  from  all  parts  of  the  pueblo  as  the  women 
ground  their  corn  and  sang  simultaneously. 

By  the  way,  on  the  day  I  made  the  photograph  We- 
wha's  mother  was  making  cactus,  or  prickly  pear,  jam. 
I  watched  the  process  with  much  interest.  Impaling  the 
prickly  fruit  with  a  wooden  skewer,  she  deftly  peeled 
off  the  skin  with  a  modern  case-knife.  Knowing  how 
full  of  seeds  the  pear  was,  I  sat  wondering  how  these  were 
eliminated.  In  a  few  moments  I  was  informed.  As  fast 
as  she  peeled  the  fruit  she  nonchalantly  tossed  it  into 
her  mouth,  keeping  up  a  continuous  chewing,  while  out  of 
the  northeast  corner  of  her  mouth  flowed  a  steady  stream 
of  seeds  (which  were  rejected),  and  from  the  south- 
west corner  came  the  jam,  which  was  caught  in  her  fin- 
gers, thrown  into  the  boiling  pot  and  thus  cooked. 

I  have  never  eaten  any  kind  of  Indian  jam  since. 

One  of  the  most  interesting  adventures  of  my  life  oc- 
curred on  a  visit  paid  to  Thunder  Mountain.  Tsnahey, 
his  son,  and  another  youth,  were  my  guides.     I  was  ac- 


My  Adventures  at  Zuni 65 

companied  by  F.  H.  Maude,  of  Los  Angeles,  Calif.,  as 
photographer.  I  had  asked  that  we  be  taken  up  by  the 
"  Old  Trail  " —  the  one  used  by  the  Zunis  when  they 
lived  on  the  summit  of  Tai-yo-al-la-ne.  At  first  he  said 
it  was  impossible.  The  storms  of  the  centuries  had 
washed  it  out  so  that  it  was  impracticable. 

"  Can  you  go  up  it?  "  I  asked. 

"  Yes,"   was   the   reply. 

"  Then,"  said  I,  "  we'll  go  too." 

But  we  took  along  several  stout  ropes,  to  aid  in  case 
of  emergency,  and  it  was  well  that  we  did.  We  came  to 
places  where  all  traces  of  the  trail  were  gone.  At  others 
we  had  to  be  hoisted  up  by  sheer  strength,  the  Indians 
having  scaled  the  cliffs  and  the  three  of  them  finding 
it  pretty  hard  work  to  drag  us  up  to  their  level.  On  the 
summit  we  found  the  ruins  of  the  homes,  occupied  by  the 
rebellious  Zunis,  after  1680,  and  there  Tsnahey  took  us 
to  the  shrine  we  had  come  especially  to  see.  It  was  of 
Ma-a-si-lima  and  Ah-a-yu-ta,  the  twin  gods  of  war. 
To  our  surprise  there  was  not  one  figure  of  the  god,  but 
a  score  or  more.  It  was  evident  that  a  new  figure  was 
brought  up  at  intervals,  possibly  each  year,  and  it  took 
the  place  of  honour,  the  older  figures  being  placed,  one 
on  each  side  of  it  and  allowed  to  remain,  until  they, 
in  turn,  were  displaced  by  newer  "  gods."  The  discarded 
gods  were  stacked  up  in  a  pile,  like  cord-wood,  behind 
the  shrine.  In  front  of  it  pahos,  or  prayer  sticks,  and 
plumes  were  stuck  into  the  ground  in  regular  order. 
Seeing  so  many  gods  I  laughingly  turned  to  Dick  and 
suggested  that  I  take  one  or  two  of  them  away  with  me. 
Horrified  at  the  mere  suggestion,  he  exclaimed :  "  You 
take  'em,  Maasilima  heap  mad.  Pretty  quick  I  dry 
up  and  blow  away." 

This  was  a  punishment  not  even  the  Huns  have  yet 


66    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

invented,  so  I  forwent  the  pleasure  of  becoming  the  owner 
of  a  god.  But  I  am  free  to  confess  my  cupidity  was 
aroused.     Later  it  was  to  be  satisfied. 

This  was  the  shrine  thus  spoken  of  by  Cushing  in 
his  third  Century  article : 

Perhaps  the  Priesthood  of  the  Bow  is  the  only  truly  esoteric 
of  all  these  bodies,  since  members  of  it  may  be  admitted  to  meet- 
ings of  all  the  others,  while  members  of  the  other  societies  are 
strictly  excluded   from  the  meeting  of  this. 

Early  learning  this,  I  strove  for  nearly  two  years  to  gain  mem- 
bership in  it,  which  would  secure  at  once  standing  with  the  tribe 
and  entrance  to  all  sacred  meetings,  as  well  as  eligibility  to  the  Head 
Chieftaincies.  I  succeeded,  and  the  memory  of  my  experiences 
in  this  connection  is  to  me  the  most  interesting  chapter  of  my 
Zuni  life. 

The  orders  were  engaged  in  their  annual  ceremonials,  of  which 
little  was  told  or  shown  me ;  but,  at  the  end  of  four  days,  I  heard  one 
morning  a  deep  whirring  noise.  Running  out,  I  saw  a  procession 
of  three  Priests  of  the  Bow,  in  plumed  helmets  and  closely-fitting 
cuirasses,  both  of  thick  buckskin  —  gorgeous  and  solemn  with  sacred 
embroideries  and  war-paint,  begirt  with  bows,  arrows,  and  war- 
clubs,  and  each  distinguished  by  his  badge  of  degree, —  coming  down 
one  of  the  narrow  streets.  The  principal  priest  carried  in  his  arm 
.a  wooden  idol,  ferocious  in  aspect,  yet  beautiful  with  its  decora- 
tions of  shell,  turquoise,  and  brilliant  paint.  It  was  nearly  hidden 
by  symbolic  slats  and  prayer-sticks  most  elaborately  plumed.  He 
was  preceded  by  a  guardian  with  drawn  bow  and  arrows,  while 
another  followed,  twirling  the  sounding  slat  which  had  attracted 
alike  my  attention  and  that  of  hundreds  of  the  Indians,  who  hur- 
riedly flocked  to  the  roofs  of  the  adjacent  houses  or  lined  the 
street,  bowing  their  heads  in  adoration,  and  scattering  sacred 
prayer-meal  on  the  god  and  his  attendant  priests.  Slowly  they 
wound  their  way  down  the  hill,  across  the  river,  and  off  toward  the 
mountain  of  Thunder.  Soon  an  identical  procession  followed  and 
took  its  way  toward  the  western  hills.  I  watched  them  long 
until  they  disappeared,  and  a  few  hours  afterward  there  arose  from 
the  top  of  "  Thunder  Mountain  "  a  dense  column  of  smoke,  simul- 
taneously with  another  from  the  more  distant  western  mesa  of 
"  U-ha-na-mi "  or  "  Mount  of  the  Beloved." 

Then  they  told  me  that  for  four  days  I  must  neither  touch  nor 
eat  flesh  or  oil  of  any  kind,  and  for  ten  days  neither  throw  any 
refuse  from  my  doors,  nor  permit  a  spark  to  leave  my  house,  for 


My  Adventures  at  Zuni 67 

"  This  was  the  season  of  the  year  when  the  '  grandmother  of  men ' 
(fire)   was  precious." 

Since  my  admission  to  the  Priesthood  of  the  Bow,  I  have  been 
elected  to  the  office  of  guardian  to  these  gods;  have  twice  accom- 
panied them  to  their  distant  lofty  shrines,  where,  with  many  pray- 
ers, chants,  and  invocations,  they  are  placed  in  front  of  their  prede- 
cessors of  centuries'  accumulation.  Poetic  in  name  and  ascribed  na- 
ture are  these  cherished  and  adored  gods  of  war :  one  is  called 
"  A-hai-iu-ta,"  and  the  other  "  Ma-tsai-le-ma,"  and  they  are  believed 
to  be  single  in  spirit,  yet  dual  in  form,  the  child  or  children  of 
the  God  of  the  Sun,  and  to  guard  from  year  to  year,  from  sunrise 
to  sunset,  the  vale  and  children  of  those  they  were  first  sent  to 
redeem  and  guide.  These  children  receive  without  question  the 
messages  interpreted  by  their  priests  from  year  to  year,  which  un- 
failingly shape  the  destinies  of  their  nation  toward  the  "  encircling 
cities  of  mankind." 

Now,  while  I  was  much  gratified  at  the  sight  of  this 
shrine,  a  desire  sprang  up  within  me  to  see  another  of 
which  I  had  read  no  description  nor  heard  any  mention. 
One  night  in  the  home  of  one  of  the  chief  priests,  where 
I  was  supposed  to  be  sleeping,  I  had  heard  him  praying 
to  a  god,  whom  he  called  U-nah-i-kaJi.  Breathlessly  I 
listened  to  his  soft  and  gentle  voice  and  from  something 
he  said  I  gathered  that  a  new  figure  of  the  god  either 
had  been,  or  soon  was  to  be,  deposited  at  his  shrine  which 
was  on  Taiyoallane.  There  was  nothing  certain  as  to 
this  location,  but  I  received  a  vague  impression  to  that 
effect.  Strange  to  say  I  never  thought  of  the  matter 
again  until  I  was  arguing  with  Dick  (Tsnahey)  at  the 
shrine  of  the  twin  gods  of  war.  He  had  refused  so  posi- 
tively to  consent  to  my  taking  one  of  the  figures  that  I 
felt  a  little  piqued,  and  suddenly  there  flashed  into  my 
mind  the  thought  that  possibly  I  could  discover  another 
shrine,  and  obtain  therefrom  a  most  precious  "  idol." 
Acting  upon  this  "  hunch  "  I  turned  to  Dick  and  asked 
him  to  take  me  to  the  shrine  of  Unahikah.  The  moment 
the  name  was  uttered  I  saw  I  had  struck  something  rich 


68    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

in  mystery.  For  Dick,  through  his  bronze  skin,  turned 
pale,  and  utter  consternation  came  over  him.  There  is 
no  question  but  that  he  was  profoundly  disturbed.  Fal- 
teringly  he  asked  what  I  knew  of  Unahikah.  Resolutely 
I  dared  to  follow  my  "  hunch  "  to  the  utmost.  I  declared 
I  knew  much  about  him ;  that  he  had  a  shrine  on  Taiyoal- 
lane;  that  a  god  had  recently  been  placed  there  which  I 
was  determined  to  see,  and  now  I  forthwith  commanded 
him  to  take  me  there. 

With  tears  in  his  eyes  he  protested  that  he  did  not 
know  of  any  such  shrine.  None  knew,  not  even  of  the 
best  informed  of  the  Zunis, —  only  the  chief  Warrior 
Priest. 

It  didn't  make  any  difference,  I  said,  I  had  come  to  see 
that  shrine  and  I  was  going  to  see  it,  so  the  sooner  he 
found  it  the  better,  as  none  of  us  would  leave  the  moun- 
tain until  it  was  found. 

In  vain  Dick  argued,  pleaded,  remonstrated,  with  me. 
My  pitiless  reply  was  "  The  shrine  must  be  found."  In 
despair,  at  last,  he  gave  it  up,  and  sat  disconsolately  upon 
the  ground,  refusing  to  go  further.  I  had  noticed,  dur- 
ing this  time,  that  Dick's  son  seemed  to  want  to  say  or 
do  something,  and  at  this  juncture  he  beckoned  me  aside. 
Hesitatingly,  and  apparently  half  reluctantly  and  fear- 
fully, he  confessed  that  he  knew  where  the  shrine  of 
Unahikah  was.  I  knew  that  he  had  attended  one  of  our 
Indian  Schools, —  Carlisle,  perhaps, —  and  inferred  from 
his  somewhat  irreverent  talk,  afterwards  supplemented 
by  my  questionings,  that  he  had  come  to  the  conclusion 
that  all  the  ceremonies  of  his  people  were  foolish,  unneces- 
sary, and  purely  the  results  of  superstition.  With  the 
boldness  of  this  belief  he  had  played  eavesdropper  to  the 
chief  priest  on  several  occasions,  had  seen  one  of  the 
figures  of  Unahikah,  knew  that  it  would  soon  have  to  be 


My  Adventures  at  Zuni 69 

placed  in  its  own  shrine,  and,  therefore,  he  had  watched 
and  secretly  followed  the  priest  when  he  carried  it  away. 

The  young  man,  also,  had  learned  something  else  from 
his  white  associations  and  teaching.  After  his  explana- 
tions, his  earnest  query  was :  "  What  you  give  me,  I 
show  you  Unahikah  ?  "  It  took  me  some  little  time  to 
decide,  hardly  so  much  perhaps  to  reconcile  my  conscience 
to  the  step  I  was  about  to  take,  as  to  think  of  the  best 
way  of  compassing  my  desires.  Anyhow  we  made  a 
suitable  compact,  and  to  Dick's  great  surprise,  when  we 
returned  to  him,  said  we  were  going  to  see  the  shrine. 

Again  he  asserted  that  he  —  though  a  Governor  of  the 
pueblo  —  had  never  seen  it,  and  did  not  know  of  any 
one  else,  save  the  chief  warrior  priest,  who  had  done  so. 
After  half  an  hour's  walk  or  less  we  had  crossed  the  mesa, 
and  stopped.  The  youth  began  to  look  around,  and  so 
did  I.  Suddenly  I  heard  his  voice,  somewhat  muffled 
it  seemed,  calling:     "You  come." 

I  turned,  but  he  had  disappeared.  Again  the  call 
came  :     "  You  come !  " 

This  time,  going  to  the  edge  of  the  cliff  and  looking 
down  I  saw  him  standing  on  a  finger  of  rock,  thrust  out 
from  the  face  of  the  fearful  precipice,  and  beckoning 
me  to  descend.  Instinctively  I  shrank  back.  How  far 
down  it  was  I  could  not  then,  and  cannot  now,  tell.  It 
seemed  a  thousand,  two,  five,  ten  thousand  feet. 

Tying  one  of  the  strongest  ropes  around  me  I  bade 
Dick  and  the  others  hold  on  to  it  and  carefully  lower  me 
down.  When  I  stood  safely  on  the  rock-finger  I  looked 
—  as  it  were  —  into  the  heart  of  the  cliff.  There,  caused 
by  the  falling  away  of  a  curved  mass  of  rock,  was  created 
a  narrow  recess,  some  eight  or  ten  feet  high,  and  in  that 
space,  lined  up  in  an  irregular  row,  were  the  figures  of 
Unahikah,  deposited  during  the  centuries.     There  were 


70    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

about  twenty  of  them,  in  all,  and  every  one,  even  the 
newest,  had  never  known  the  touch  of  white  man's  steel. 
They  were  all  cut  and  carved  with  the  rude  flint  knives 
of  the  Zunis,  as  their  hacked  edges  showed.  The  surfaces 
were  smoothed  off,  doubtless  scraped  with  the  same  kind 
of  implement. 

After  my  photographer  had  been  lowered,  had  made 
a  number  of  photographs,  and  had  returned  to  the  top 
of  the  mesa,  an  interesting  little  colloquy  took  place  be- 
tween Dick  and  myself: 

,  "  All  right,  Dick,  you  go!  " —  with  a  wave  of  the  hand 
toward  the  ascent. 

Dick.     "  No,  you  go !  "  with  a  strong  motion  of  dissent. 

/.     "  What  for  you  no  go?     You  go  and  I  come." 

Dick.     "No!     I  no  go!     You  go!" 

/.     "What's  all  this  about?     Why  you  no  go  ?  " 

Dick.  "I  sabe  you  stay.  You  catch  'em  Unahikah. 
He  get  heap  mad  you  take  'em  and  pretty  quick  I  die.  I 
no  go ! " 

Dick's  perceptions,  or  intuitions,  or  whatever  else  they 
might  be  called,  were  correct.  I  did  intend  to  take  one 
of  the  "  idols,"  nay,  I  had  resolved  to  take  two.  But 
Dick's  resolute  demeanour  somewhat  shook  my  assurance. 
I  then  began  to  negotiate,  and  as  soon  as  I  found  I  could 
negotiate, —  in  other  words  that  it  was  not  a  matter  of 
principle  with  Dick,  but  merely  a  question  of  graft, —  I 
was  inflexible.  I  offered  to  send  him  a  barrel  of  shells 
for  the  purpose  of  making  shell-beads  (or  wampum)  for 
necklaces ;  to  take  upon  myself  all  the  anger  of  Unahikah, 
should  he  regard  my  action  as  a  desecration  of  his  shrine; 
that  I  would  securely  wrap  up  the  "  gods  "  and  not  allow 
them  to  be  unwrapped  while  repacking  them  in  Zuni ;  that 
I  would  not  return  to  Zuni  until  after  dark,  and  would 
then  immediately  pack  up  and  leave  the  pueblo  with  my 


My  Adventures  at  Zuni 71 

ill-gotten  treasures  before  daylight.  All  these  things  I 
solemnly  promised,  and  faithfully  I  kept  my  word.  The 
only  wrap  I  had  for  the  "  gods,"  however,  was  my  coat. 
As  night  came  on  it  was  intensely  cold  and  I  suffered  con- 
siderably, but  my  word  was  pledged,  and,  chilled  to  the 
marrow,  we  drove  back  to  Zuni.  On  my  return,  after  a 
hot  supper  and  a  thawing  out,  our  packing  was  done,  and 
long  before  the  dawn  of  day,  Mr.  Maude  and  myself 
were  on  our  way  to  Las  Tina j as. 

The  two  figures  of  Unahikah  are  now  in  my  posses- 
sion, and  as  I  have  not  dried  up,  been  blown  away,  or  had 
any  other  fearful  thing  happen  to  me,  I  am  fain  to  be- 
lieve that  the  conduct  I  have  related  has  not  brought  upon 
me  either  the  censure,  disapprobation,  or  vengeance  of 
the  gods. 

A  few  years  after  this  first  and  only  attempt  at  plunder- 
ing a  sacred  shrine  I  ever  made  —  even  though  this  was 
successful — I  was  lecturing  in  Brooklyn  at  the  same 
time  as  Lieut.  Cushing.  We  met  several  times  and  I 
enjoyed  his  chats  on  Zuni  amazingly.  When  I  showed 
him  the  picture  of  the  two  wooden  figures  of  Unahikah 
and  told  him  the  foregoing  story  he  expressed  himself 
as  more  than  surprised.  He  confessed  he  had  never 
seen  the  shrine  and  had  never  heard  of  it.  Mrs.  Steven- 
son said  the  same  when  I  visited  her  at  her  ranch  house, 
near  Espafiola,  N.  M.,  a  few  years  before  she  died. 
She  was  keenly  interested,  took  careful  notes,  as  I  de- 
scribed the  location  of  the  shrine  as  near  as  I  could  re- 
member, and  evidently  availed  herself  of  the  informa- 
tion thus  given.  For,  in  her  colossal  monograph  on  the 
Zunis,  the  23rd  Annual  Report  of  the  Bureau  of  Ethnol- 
ogy, she  gives  a  photograph  (opposite  p.  607)  showing 
six  of  these  wooden  figures.  The  title  placed  under  them 
is  "  Idols  of   Elder  God  of   War   from   Ancient  Cave 


72    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

Shrine,  West  Walls  of  To'wa  Yallanne  (Corn  Moun- 
tain)." Nowhere  in  the  text,  however,  does  she  write 
of  the  shrine,  except  the  mere  announcement  as  to  the 
picture. 

In  the  earlier  pages  of  the  work  she  refers  to  Ahayuta 
as  the  Elder  God  of  War,  but  both  Cushing  and  myself 
gained  the  idea  that  Ahayuta  and  Maasilime  were  the 
"  twin  gods  of  war."  Possibly  further  study  on  the  part 
of  some  ethnologist  who  gains  the  confidence  of  the  Zuni 
native  priesthood  will  solve  the  question. 

On  one  of  our  visits  to  Taiyoallane  we  were  much  im- 
pressed by  two  immense  stone  pillars  of  erosion  which 
stood  at  one  end  of  the  mesa  top.  Seen  from  below,  out- 
lined against  the  pure  blue  of  the  sky  they  were  slender 
and  graceful,  almost  as  if  carved  by  human  hands,  but  as 
one  approached  nearer  to  them,  on  ascending  the  trail, 
or  viewed  them  from  the  level  top  of  the  mesa,  they  were 
rude  and  rugged  pillars  carved  by  nature's  forces  into 
the  shapes  they  now  present. 

Knowing  that  every  such  object  is  held  in  veneration 
by  all  Indians,  and  that  those  living  near  them  seldom  fail 
to  have  legends  to  account  for  them  I  questioned  my  Zuni 
friends  until  I  learned  the  following  romantic  and  pa- 
thetic legend.  In  the  long,  long  ago  the  Zunis  wtre  very 
wicked,  and  in  spite  of  the  continued  warnings  of  Those 
Above,  they  persisted  in  their  evil  doings,  until  the 
Shadow  People  determined  to  destroy  them  from  the  face 
of  the  earth.  Accordingly  the  two  great  water  sources 
of  the  world  were  opened  —  the  Reservoir  of  the  Above 
from  which  all  rains  descend,  and  the  Reservoir  of  the 
Below,  from  which  all  springs,  creeks  and  rivers  receive 
their  flow.  The  very  plugs  were  withdrawn,  and  the  rain 
poured  down,  and  the  floods  arose,  until  the  Zunis  knew 
the  wrath  of  the  gods  was  falling  upon  them.     Hastily 


Photograph    by    George    Wharton    James. 
THE   PILLARS   KNOWN   AS    '"THE    CAIQUE'S    SON   AND    DAUGHTER," 
ON  TAIYOALLANE,  NEAR  ZUNI. 


My  Adventures  at  Zuni 73 

they  fled  to  the  summit  of  Taiyoallane  where  the  younger 
ones  of  the  wicked  and  profane  laughed  at  the  fears  of 
the  others,  and  openly  scoffed  at  the  idea  that  even  the 
floods  of  the  heavens  above  and  of  the  under  world  be- 
neath could  ever  rise  so  high  as  to  reach  them.  But 
slowly  and  surely  the  water  arose.  Higher  and  higher  it 
came,  until  even  the  scoffers  were  silenced,  and  dumb 
dread  filled  their  souls.  In  vain  the  priests  of  the  various 
brotherhoods  danced  and  sang,  prayed  and  made  the 
big  smoke,  made  medicine  and  offered  gifts.  The  anger 
of  Those  Above  would  not  be  turned  away.  At  last  the 
chief  of  the  priests  went  away  to  a  quiet  part  of  the 
mountain  summit  where  he  could  meditate  and  pray  and 
more  especially  intercede  for  his  people.  He  finally 
came  back  and  said  that  Those  Above  could  have  their 
anger  turned  away  from  them  in  one  way  only.  The 
choicest  of  the  young  men  and  the  fairest  and  sweetest  of 
the  young  maidens  must  be  prepared  for  sacrifice,  and 
then,  with  appropriate  ceremonies,  be  flung  into  the 
waters.  Thus  could  the  wrath  of  the  gods  be  appeased 
and  their  anger  turned  away.  Sadly  the  people  listened, 
and  then  discussed  as  to  who  should  be  offered  as  the 
needful  sacrifice.  A  youth  was  found,  handsome  as  a 
young  god,  athletic,  healthful,  radiant,  fine-featured,  be- 
loved by  all.  Then,  while  no  one  dared  whisper  it,  the 
thought  went  through  the  minds  of  all  that  the  only 
maiden  worthy  was  the  beloved  only  daughter  of  their 
revered  cacique.  When  he  looked  up  to  see  whom  the 
people  had  chosen  and  there  was  no  maiden  there,  tears 
sprang  into  his  eyes.  Calling  his  sweet  daughter  to  him 
he  said  a  few  words  to  which  she  reverently  bowed  her 
head.  Taking  her  stand  beside  the  youth,  those  pres- 
ent knew  that  the  sacrifice  would  be  complete.  Carefully 
robing  them   both  in  their  finest   ceremonial   costumes, 


74    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

placing  suitable  decorations  in  their  hair,  around  their 
arms  and  in  their  hands,  the  young  pair  were  made  ready. 
Then,  slowly  and  quietly,  but  increasing  in  volume  and 
agony,  the  death  wail  was  sung,  after  which  the  cacique, 
blessing  them  both,  and  invoking  the  pardon  of  Those 
Above  to  be  gained  at  so  great  a  cost,  flung  them  head 
long  into  the  seething,  swirling,  angry  waters.  It  was 
done  not  a  moment  too  soon,  for  already  the  throng  was 
standing  on  the  small  piece  of  high  land  left  on  the 
mesa  top,  with  water  completely  surrounding  them. 

In  less  than  an  hour  the  water  had  gained  its  height, 
and  began  to  subside.  Days  and  weeks  passed,  however, 
before  the  valley  was  dry  and  the  chastened  people  could 
return  to  their  homes. 

Not  long  after  this  one  of  the  youths  who  had  been 
foremost  in  wickedness  happened  to  look  up  toward 
Taiyoallane  and  there  saw  two  figures  standing  out  clear 
and  plain  from  the  mesa  top.  Calling  to  his  people,  they 
were  soon  gazing  with  wonderment  and  awe  at  the  sight, 
knowing  that  Those  Above  had  given  this  to  them  as  a 
sign.  This  was  confirmed  when  the  cacique  solemnly  as- 
sured them  that  these  were  the  heaven-made  images  of 
their  loved  ones  given  as  a  sacrifice.  The  outer  and 
large  one  was  the  youth,  the  inner  and  smaller  was  the 
maiden. 

"  But,"  said  I  to  my  informant,  after  thanking  him  for 
the  beautiful  story,  "  there  are  six  figures  or  pillars  up 
there,  and  not  merely  two." 

"  Ah,"  was  the  reply,  "  the  youth  and  maiden  cried  out 
to  Those  Above  that  they  were  lonesome,  so  the  gods  mar- 
ried them,  and  by  and  by,  four  children,  two  boys  and  two 
girls,  came  to  make  them  happy." 

Thus  the  simple-hearted  Zunis  teach  their  youth  the 
evil  of  sin,  the  need  of  self-sacrifice,  the  compassion  of 


My  Adventures  at  Zuni 75 

Those  Above,  by  means  of  the  carvings  made  in  their 
mountains  by  wind  and  water,  storm  and  sand. 

No  account  of  Zuni  would  be  complete  without  a  de- 
scription of  one  of  the  great  ceremonial  dances  for  which 
it  has  long  been  famous, —  dances  that  are  now  attract- 
ing hundreds  of  visitors  each  year.  No  later  writer  has 
equaled  Cushing  in  the  vividness  of  his  description  of 
one  of  these  dances  and  its  accompaniments.  It  reveals, 
with  wonderful  clarity,  some  of  the  superstitions  of  the 
Zunis,  and  how  he  overcame  their  opposition  and  preju- 
dice to  his  picture-making  and  writing.     He  says: 

Although  kinder  than  ever,  the  governor  continued  just  as  faith- 
fully his  nightly  vigils.  One  night,  after  sitting  close  beside  me, 
examining  every  word  I  wrote,  he  threw  away  his  cigarette,  and 
informed  me  that  "  it  was  not  well  for  me  to  make  any  more  marks 
on  the  paper  —  it  was  of  no  use."  As  I  calmly  persisted,  the  next 
night  a  grave  council  was  held.  It  was  in  the  same  room,  and 
as  I  lay  in  my  hammock  listening  to  the  proceedings,  the  discussion 
grew  louder  and  more  and  more  excited,  the  subjects  evidently  be- 
ing my  papers  and  myself. 

When  at  a  late  hour  the  council  broke  up,  the  governor  ap- 
proached me,  candle  in  hand,  and  intently  regarded  my  face  for 
several  minutes.     He  then  said: 

"The  Kea-k'ok-shi  (Sacred  Dance)  is  coming  to-morrow.  What 
think  you  ?  " 

"  I  think  it  will  rain." 

"  And  /  think,"  said  he,  as  he  set  his  mouth  and  glared  at  me  with 
his  black  eyes,  "  that  you  will  not  see  the  Kea-k'ok-shi  when  it  comes 
to-morrow." 

"  /  think  I  shall,"  was  my  reply. 

Next  morning  before  I  was  awake,  the  herald  and  two  or  three 
tinientes  had  come  in,  and,  as  I  arose,  were  sitting  along  the  side 
of  the  house.  The  old  head  chief  had  just  prepared  my  morning 
meal,  and  gone  out  after  something.  I  greeted  all  pleasantly  and 
sat  down  to  eat.  Before  I  had  half  finished  I  heard  the  rattle  and 
drum  of  the  coming  dance.  I  hastily  jumped  up,  took  my  leather 
book-pouch  from  the  antlers,  and  strapping  it  across  my  shoulder, 
started  for  the  door.  Two  of  the  chiefs  rushed  ahead  of  me,  caught 
me  by  the  arms,  and  quietly  remarked  that  it  would  be  well  for  me 
to   finish  my  breakfast.     I   asked  them   if   the   dance   was    coming. 


76    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

They  said  they  didn't  know.  I  replied  that  I  did,  and  that  I  was 
going  out  to  see  it. 

"  Leave  your  books  and  pencils  behind,  then,"  said  they. 

"  No,  I  must  carry  them  wherever  I  go." 

"  If  you  put  the  shadows  of  the  great  dance  down  on  the  leaves 
of  your  books  to-day,  we  shall  cut  them  to  pieces,"  they  threatened. 

Suddenly  wrenching  away  from  them,  I  pulled  a  knife  out  from 
the  bottom  of  my  pouch,  and,  bracing  up  against  the  wall,  brandished 
it  and  said  that  whatever  hand  grabbed  my  arm  again  would  be  cut 
off,  that  whoever  cut  my  books  to  pieces  would  only  cut  himself  to 
pieces  with  my  knife.  It  was  a  doubtful  game  of  bluff,  but  the 
chiefs  fell  back  a  little,  and  I  darted  through  the  door.  Although 
they  followed  me  throughout  the  whole  day,  they  did  not  again  offer 
to  molest  me,  but  the  people  gathered  so  closely  around  me  that  I 
could  scarcely  find  opportunity  for  sketching. 

As  the  month  of  November  approached,  the  cold  rains  began  to 
fall.  Frost  destroyed  the  corn-plants  and  vines.  Ice  formed  over 
the  river  by  night  to  linger  a  little  while  in  the  morning,  then  be 
chased  away  by  the  midday  sun.  Not  in  the  least  did  these  fore-run- 
ners of  a  severe  winter  cause  the  dance  ceremonials  to  abate.  The 
Indians  were,  to  some  extent,  reassured,  when,  on  the  occasion  of 
the  next  dance,  which  happened  to  be  a  repetition  of  the  first,  I 
did  little  or  no  sketching.  At  another  dance,  however,  I  resumed 
the  hated  practice,  which  made  matters  worse  than  before.  A 
second  council  was  called.  Of  this,  however,  I  knew  nothing  until 
afterward  told  by  the  old  chief.  It  seems  that  it  was  a  secret. 
It  discussed  various  plans  for  either  disposing  of  me,  or  compelling 
me  to  desist.  Among  others  was  the  proposal  that  I  be  thrown 
off  the  great  mesa,'  as  were  the  two  "children  of  the  angry 
water,"  but  it  was  urged  that  should  this  be  done,  "  Wa-sin-to-nia  " 
might  visit  my  death  on  the  whole  nation.  In  order  to  avoid  this 
difficulty,  others  suggested  that  I  be  ha-thli-kzvish-k-ia  (condemned 
of  sorcery)  and  executed.  They  claimed  that  sorcery  was  such  a 
heinous  crime  that  my  execution  would  be  pardoned,  if  repre- 
sented to  the  Americans  as  the  consequence  of  it.  But  some  of  the 
councilors  reminded  the  others  that  the  Americans  had  no  sorcer- 
ers among  them,  and  were  ignorant  of  witchcraft. 

At  last  a  plan  was  hit  upon  which  the  simple  natives  thought 
would  free  them  from  all  their  perplexities.  Surely,  no  objection 
could  be  offered  to  the  "  death  of  a  Navaho."  Forthwith  the  Knife 
Dance  was  ordered,  as  it  was  thought  possible  that  the  appearance 
of  this  dance  would  be  sufficient  to  intimidate  me,  without  recourse 
to  additional  violence. 

One  morning  thereafter,  the  old  chief  appeared  graver  and  more 


My  Adventures  at  Zuni 77 

affectionate  toward  me  than  usual.  He  told  me  the  "  Ho-mah-tchi 
was  coming, —  a  very  sa-mu  (ill-natured)  dance,''  and  suggested 
that  "  it  would  be  well  for  me  not  to  sketch  it."  Unaware  either  of 
the  council  or  of  the  functions  of  the  angry  dance,  I  persisted.  The 
old  man,  a  little  vexed,  exclaimed,  "  Oh,  well,  of  course,  a  fool  al- 
ways makes  a  fool  of  himself."  But  he  said  no  more,  and  I  assigned, 
as  the  cause  of  his  remarks,  superstitious  reasons,  rather  than  any 
solicitude  for  my  safety. 

When  the  great  dance  appeared,  the  governor  seemed  desirous  of 
keeping  me  at  home.  During  most  of  the  morning  I  humoured  him 
in  this.  At  last,  however,  fearing  I  would  miss  some  important 
ceremonial,  I  stole  out  across  the  house-tops  and  took  a  position  on 
one  of  the  terraces  of  the  dance  court. 

The  dancers  filed  in  through  the  covered  way,  preceded  by  a  priest, 
and  arranged  themselves  in  a  line  across  the  court.  Their  costumes 
were  not  unlike  those  of  the  first  dance  I  had  witnessed,  save  that 
the  masks  were  flatter  and  smeared  with  blood,  and  the  beards  and 
hair  were  long  and  streaming.  In  their  right  hands  the  performers 
carried  huge,  leaf-shaped,  blood-stained  knives  of  stone,  which,  dur- 
ing the  movements  of  the  dance,  they  brandished  wildly  in  the  air, 
in  time  and  accompaniment  to  their  wild  song  and  regular  steps, 
often  pointing  them  toward  me. 

As  the  day  advanced,  spectators  began  to  throng  the  terraces  and 
court,  few,  however,  approaching  to  where  I  was  sitting ;  and  'the 
masked  clowns  made  their  appearance. 

I  had  been  busy  with  memoranda  and  had  succeeded  in  sketching 
three  or  four  of  the  costumes,  when  there  dashed  into  the  court  two 
remarkable  characters.  Their  bodies,  nude,  save  for  short  breech- 
clouts,  were  painted  with  ashes.  Skull-caps,  tufted  with  split  corn- 
husks,  and  heavy  streaks  of  black  under  their  eyes  and  over  their 
mouths,  gave  them  a  most  ghastly  and  ferocious  appearance.  Each 
wore  around  his  neck  a  short,  twisted  rope  of  black  fiber,  and  each 
was  armed  with  a  war-club  or  ladder-round. 

A  brief  intermission  in  the  dance  was  the  signal  for  a  loud  and 
excited  harangue  on  the  part  of  the  two,  which,  at  first  greeted  with 
laughter,  was  soon  received  with  absolute  silence,  even  by  the  chil- 
dren. Soon  they  began  to  point  wildly  at  me  with  their  clubs. 
Unable  as  I  was  to  understand  all  they  had  been  saying,  I  at  first 
regarded  it  all  as  a  joke,  like  those  of  the  Keo-yi-mo-shi,  until  one 
shouted  out  to  the  other,  "  Kill  him !  kill  him !  "  and  the  women  and 
children,  excitedly  rising,  rushed  for  the  doorways  or  gathered  closer 
to  one  another.  Instantly,  the  larger  one  approached  the  ladder 
near  the  top  of  which  I  sat,  brandishing  his  war-club  at  me.  Sav- 
agely striking  the  rounds  and  poles,  he  began  to  ascend.     A   few 


78    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

Indians  had  collected  behind  me,  and  a  host  of  them  stood  all 
around  in  front.  Therefore,  I  realized  that  in  case  of  violence, 
escape  would  be  impossible. 

I  forced  a  laugh,  quickly  drew  my  hunting-knife  from  the  bottom 
of  the  pouch,  waved  it  two  or  three  times  in  the  air  so  that  it  flashed 
in  the  sunlight,  and  laid  it  conspicuously  in  front  of  me.  Still  smil- 
ing, I  carefully  placed  my  book  —  open  —  by  the  side  of  the  pouch 
and  laid  a  stone  on  it  to  show  that  I  intended  to  resume  the  sketch- 
ing. Then  I  half  rose,  clinging  to  the  ladder-pole  with  one  hand, 
and  holding  the  other  in  readiness  to  clutch  the  knife.  The  one 
below  suddenly  grabbed  the  skirt  of  the  other  and  shouted,  "  Hold 
on,  he  is  a  ki-he!  a  ki-he! 1  We  have  been  mistaken.  This  is  no 
Navaho."  Jumping  down  to  the  ground,  the  one  thus  addressed 
glanced  up  at  me  for  an  instant,  waved  his  war-club  in  the  air, 
breathed  from  it,  and  echoed  the  words  of  his  companion,  while  the 
spectators  wildly  shouted  applause.  The  two  held  a  hurried  con- 
ference. They  swore  they  must  "  kill  a  Navaho,"  and  dashed 
through  the  crowd  and  passage-way  out  of  the  court. 

The  Keo-yi-mo-shi,  freed  from  their  restraint,  rushed  about  with 
incessant  jabber,  and  turned  their  warty  eyes  constantly  in  my  direc- 
tion. As  I  replaced  my  knife  and  resumed  the  sketching,  the  eyes 
of  nearly  the  whole  assemblage  were  turned  toward  me,  and  the 
applause,  mingled  with  loud  remarks,  was  redoubled.  Some  of  the 
old  men  even  came  up  and  patted  me  on  the  head,  or  breathed  on 
my  hands  and  from  their  own. 

Presently  a  prolonged  howl  outside  the  court  attracted  the  atten- 
tion of  all,  and  the  frantic  pair  rushed  in  through  the  covered  way, 
dragging  by  the  tail  and  hind  legs  a  big  yelping,  snapping,  shaggy 
yellow  dog.  "  We  have  found  a  Navaho,"  exclaimed  one,  as  they 
threw  the  dog  violently  against  the  ground.  While  he  was  cringing 
before  them,  they  began  an  erratic  dance,  wildly  gesticulating  and 
brandishing  their  clubs,  and  interjecting  their  snatches  of  song  with 
short  speeches.  Suddenly,  one  of  them  struck  the  brute  across  the 
muzzle  with  his  war-club,  and  a  well-directed  blow  from  the  other 
broke  its  back.  While  it  was  yet  gasping  and  struggling,  the  smaller 
one  of  the  two  rushed  about  frantically,  yelling,  "  A  knife,  a  knife." 
One  was  thrown  down  to  him.  Snatching  it  up,  he  grabbed  the  ani- 
mal and  made  a  gash  in  its  viscera.  The  scene  which  followed  was 
too  disgusting  for  description.  It  finds  parallel  only  in  some  of  the 
war  ceremonials  of  the  Aztecs,  or  in  the  animal  sacrifices  of  the 

1  Kihe  is  an  archaic  term  for  "  friend."  It  is  now  used  to  signify 
a  spiritual  friend,  or  one  who  is  endowed  with  sacred  powers  for  the 
good  of  mankind. 


My  Adventures  at  Zuni 79_ 

savages  of  the  far  Northwest.  Let  it  suffice  that  what  remained 
of  the  dog  at  sunset,  when  the  dance  ended,  was  reluctantly  given 
over  to  its  former  owner  by  the  hideous  pair. 

Whether  the  Indians  had  really  designed  to  murder  me,  or  merely 
to  intimidate  me,  my  coolness,  as  well  as  my  waving  of  the  knife 
toward  the  sun,  both  largely  accidental,  had  made  a  great  impression 
on  them.  For  never  afterward  was  I  molested  to  any  serious  extent 
in  attempting  to  make  notes  and  sketches.1 

1  This  and  the  former  quotation  are  from  Lieut.  Cushing's  inter- 
esting articles  in  the  Century  Magazine. 


CHAPTER  VII 

AMONG   THE    WITCHES 

It  seems  incredible  that  in  this  age  of  progressive 
civilization  there  should  be  those  who  believe  in  witches 
and  witchcraft.  Yet  it  is  the  fact.  I  have  been  pres- 
ent at  several  witchcraft  trials  both  among  the  Mexicans 
and  the  Indians  of  New  Mexico.  One  race  believes  in 
witchcraft  just  about  as  much  as  the  other,  and  to  both 
it  is  a  desperate  crime  deserving  a  desperate  remedy. 

Mrs.  Stevenson,  in  her  exhaustive  monograph  upon  the 
Zunis,  gives  a  finely  philosophical  analysis  of  witchcraft 
as  understood,  practiced  and  exercised  by  the  Zunis.  It 
is  a  valuable  contribution  to  the  literature  of  the  subject 
and  well  worthy  a  place  in  these  pages.     She  says : 

Belief  in  witchcraft  seems  to  be  universal  among  the  Indian  tribes, 
and  no  great  advance  in  civilization  can  be  made  among  them  until 
the  beliefs  and  the  accompanying  practices  are  rooted  out.  It  can- 
not be  hoped  that  this  will  be  accomplished  at  once,  at  least  if 
strangers  to  the  religion  and  social  customs  of  the  people  undertake 
the  task.  When  it  is  remembered  how  recently  reputed  witches  were 
put  to  death  among  our  own  people,  and  how  persistently  the  ne- 
groes and  the  more  ignorant  whites  still  cling  to  the  belief,  what 
can  be  expected  from  peoples  in  that  stage  of  culture  where  super- 
stition is  the  prime  factor  in  their  lives? 

Primitive  man  is  less  happy  in  his  philosophy  than  enlightened 
man,  because  the  latter  has  left  behind  many  of  his  superstitions. 
The  primitive  man's  world  abounds  in  perplexing  mysteries.  All 
that  his  untutored  mind  fails  to  comprehend  is  associated  with  some 
occult  power.  This  is  the  condition  in  which  we  find  the  North 
American  Indians.  These  people  are  in  constant  terror  of  being 
conjured.  Young  mothers  especially  are  solicitous  for  their  infants, 
since  these  are  the  targets  for  the  venom  of  diabolical  beings.  The 
child's  head  and  face  are  always  covered  when  a  supposed  witch 

80 


Among  the  Witches 81 

approaches.  Again,  no  man  or  woman  who  is  reduced  to  poverty 
or  has  some  physical  deformity,  especially  any  peculiarity  that  might 
be  taken  for  the  evil  eye,  or  has  made  an  enemy  of  a  prominent 
member  of  the  tribe,  feels  safe  from  accusation.  The  owner  of  fine 
beads  and  other  adornments  experiences  much  bitter  with  the  sweet 
of  possession  because  of  the  fear  that  some  witch,  prompted  by 
jealousy,  will  strike  him  with  disease.  Moonlight  is  a  great  boon 
to  those  who  must  go  about  at  night,  for  it  enables  them  to  identify 
suspicious  objects.  They  say  that  witches  love  the  night  and  lurk 
in  shadows  and  darkness.  Witches  are  believed  to  be  able  to  assume 
the  shape  of  beasts,  and  the  domestic  cat,  on  account  of  its  stealthy 
habits  and  its  ability  to  pass  through  small  openings,  is  a  favourite 
form. 

The  philosophy  of  these  people  is  such  that  though  the  witch  may 
be  regarded  as  all  powerful,  none  but  the  poor  and  unfortunate  are 
condemned.  Few  others  are  even  brought  to  trial,  for  although  it 
may  be  whispered  about  that  certain  ones  are  witches,  their  promi- 
nence prevents  public  accusation.  Several  years  ago  the  droughts 
were  very  serious,  and  a  retired  sun-priest  was  suspected  and  im- 
peached, and  his  place  was  filled  by  another.  The  people  whispered 
among  themselves,  "  He  is  a  sorcerer."  This  man  was  in  fact  far 
superior  in  intelligence  to  his  successor,  who  miscalculated  alto- 
gether the  winter  solstice  in  1894,  and  consequently  threw  the  win- 
ter ceremonies  out  of  time,  much  to  the  disgust  of  the  wiser  heads 
in  Zuni,  who,  in  spite  of  the  assumed  infallibility  of  a  sun-priest, 
felt  sure  that  this  one  had  made  a  mistake.  The  previous  incum- 
bent, who  had  filled  the  office  for  many  years,  never  miscalculated 
so  far  as  the  writer  ever  knew  or  heard. 

While  there  are  always  among  these  people  certain  despised  crea- 
tures who  are  referred  to  as  witches  or  wizards,  it  remains  for  some 
direct  cause,  such  as  the  illness  or  death  of  some  resident  of  the 
village,  to  bring  the  supposed  witch  to  trial.  The  attendant  theurgist 
or  some  member  of  the  invalid's  family  makes  search  for  the  person 
who  has  caused  the  trouble,  and  alas  for  the  poor  creature  who  has 
offended  the  theurgist  or  who  has  an  enemy  in  the  house  of  the 
invalid,  for  he  is  sure  to  be  pounced  upon.  In  rare  instances  a 
member  of  the  family  of  a  deceased  person  takes  the  matter  into 
his  own  hands.  Such  a  case  occurred  some  years  ago,  and  was  wit- 
nessed by  Air.  D.  D.  Graham,  at  that  time  trader  at  Zuni.  A  man 
shot  and  killed  a  woman  whom  he  accused  of  having  bewitched 
his  child  and  caused  it  to  die.  The  man  was  not  brought  to  trial, 
the  court  being  satisfied  with  the  declaration  of  the  murderer  that 
the  woman  was  a  witch.  As  witches  are  believed  to  be  the  direct 
cause  of  death,  on  conviction  they  suffer  capital  punishment. 


82    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

The  usual  procedure  is  for  a  member  of  the  family  to  make  known 
his  suspicion  to  the  attendant  theurgist,  or  for  the  theurgist  himself 
to  decide  upon  the  person  to  be  accused.  One  is  seldom  brought 
to  trial  unless  death  has  actually  taken  place  or  the  patient  is  near 
death.  The  theurgist  must  account  for  his  inability  to  cure  the 
patient,  and  this  he  does  by  bringing  to  trial  the  supposed  guilty 
person  whose  malevolence  defies  the  powers  of  the  theurgist.  In 
ordinary  cases  of  sickness  patients  are  relieved  by  the  theurgist, 
who  pretends  to  extract  foreign  matter  "  shot "  into  the  body,  and 
the  sorcerer  or  witch  is  thus  left  unmolested,  with  only  whispers 
against  him. 

Mrs.  Stevenson  then  proceeds  to  give  several  stories 
of  witches  related  by  a  prominent  member  of  the  Badger 
clan,  as  follows : 

I  spent  some  days  with  the  missionary's  wife.  She  gave  me  a 
good  bed  to  sleep  in  and  blankets  to  keep  me  warm.  She  was  very 
kind  to  me,  and  I  was  happy  in  her  house,  but  after  a  time  I  grew 
very  ill  and  had  to  return  to  my  mother's  home.  A  shaman  was 
sent  for  and,  through  the  power  of  the  Beast  Gods,  he  was  enabled 
to  discover  the  cause  of  my  illness  by  placing  pinches  of  sacred  meal 
upon  me,  which  opened  to  him  the  windows  of  my  body.  He  dis- 
covered the  disease  and  declared  that  I  had  been  bewitched,  and 
commanded  the  material  which  had  been  thrust  into  my  body  to 
come  forth.  He  said  he  saw  within  me  bits  of  the  blankets  I  had 
slept  between  during  my  stay  in  the  missionary's  house,  and  bits  of 
yarn  and  calico  which  the  missionary's  wife  had  given  me.  All  this 
he  commanded  to  come  up  through  my  mouth.  The  material  ejected 
by  me  was  so  putrid  that  my  mother  and  I  could  not  distinguish  the 
bits  of  blanket,  yarn,  and  calico,  but  they  were  apparent  to  the  all- 
powerful  eye  of  the  shaman.  I  do  not  know,  but  I  think  it  was  the 
old  one-eyed  woman  who  bewitched  me.  She  was  jealous  of  the 
good  times  I  had  at  the  mission. 

At  one  time  I  had  a  very  bad  throat,  which  was  much  swollen 
and  very  painful.  The  theurgist  came  and  soon  discovered  the  cause 
of  my  suffering.  A  witch  had  shot  a  stone  into  my  throat.  The 
theurgist  had  to  repeat  many  prayers  to  the  Blest  Gods  before  power 
was  given  him  to  extract  the  stone.  He  had  to  place  his  hands  upon 
my  throat  and  call  with  great  power,  but,  obedient  to  his  command, 
the  foreign  matter  finally  appeared.  It  was,  he  averred,  a  large, 
ugly  stone,  and  he  immediately  cast  it  into  the  fire,  as  unfit  for  my 
mother  and  me  to  see. 


Among  the  Witches  83 


A  certain  wizard  painted  his  body  red,  and  the  scalp-knot  was 
painted  in  white  on  his  breasts  and  knees.  He  placed  wreaths  of 
yucca  around  his  wrists  and  ankles,  and  then  entered  the  whirlwind, 
which  is  the  friend  of  witches,  headforemost.  He  traveled  to  the 
great  river  of  the  west  and  returned  to  Zuni  in  one  day.  He  went 
to  the  great  river  to  steal  the  plume-offerings  deposited  by  the  rain- 
priests  near  Zuni  and  carried  by  the  butterflies  attached  to  the 
plume-sticks  to  the  great  river.  (The  spirit  of  the  butterfly  is  sup- 
posed to  carry  the  spirit  of  the  plume  offering.) 

The  whirlwind,  becoming  weary,  dropped  the  wizard  a  short  dis- 
tance from  Zuni,  and  as  he  fell,  a  youth  passing  by  exclaimed : 
"Aha,  where  have  you  been?  Man,  you  are  a  sorcerer  or  you 
would  not  be  traveling  in  the  whirlwind."  And  the  youth  followed 
the  wizard  to  the  village  and  told  his  story,  and  it  was  discovered 
that  the  man  was  a  wizard  and  had  stolen  the  plume-offerings  of 
the  rain-priests.  This  wizard  belonged  to  the  Dogwood  clan.  He 
was  tried  by  the  Bow  priesthood  and  was  convicted  and  hung  by  the 
arms.  No  food  was  given  him,  and  at  the  end  of  one  night  and  a 
day  he  died. 

A  wizard  attached  crow  and  owl  plumes  to  his  head  that  he  might 
have  the  eyes  of  the  crow  to  see  quickly  the  approach  of  man  and 
the  eyes  of  the  owl  to  travel  by  night.  He  flapped  his  arms  and  left 
Zuni  after  the  people  were  asleep.  He  visited  the  Apaches  and  told 
them  to  come  in  four  days  and  destroy  the  Zunis.  At  daylight  a 
Zuni  man  was  on  his  way  to  gather  wood ;  hearing  a  cry  like  an 
<Swl,  yet  human,  he  looked  about  him  and  found  a  man  whom  he 
recognized  as  a  Zuni.  "  Aha !  "  said  he ;  "  why  have  you  those 
plumes  upon  your  head?  Aha,  you  are  a  sorcerer."  "Do  not  be- 
tray me,"  said  the  sorcerer,  "  and  I  will  give  you  many  blankets 
and  all  my  precious  beads,  and  in  four  days,  when  the  Apaches  come, 
as  I  have  told  them  to  do,  I  will  go  out  and  have  them  kill  me." 
"  No,"  was  the  reply,  "  I  do  not  wish  your  things ;  but  if  you  will 
allow  the  Apaches  to  take  your  life  when  they  come,  I  will  not  tell." 
The  man,  thinking  that  perhaps  the  sorcerer  had  lied  and  that  the 
Apaches  were  already  on  their  way  to  Zuni,  hastened  to  a  place 
near  by,  gathered  such  wood  as  he  could,  and  returned  home.  His 
wife  chided  him  for  the  poor  quality  of  the  wood :  "  You  always 
bring  good  wood  and  a  large  back  load ;  now  you  bring  but  little, 
and  that  very  poor."  But  he  did  not  betray  the  secret;  and  on  the 
fourth  morning  he  listened  attentively,  and  when  he  heard  the  ax 
striking  upon  the  rock,  which  was  the  signal  given  by  the  witch,  he 
hurried  from  the  village  and  found  that  the  Apaches  had  indeed 
been  met  by  this  man  and  that  they  had  killed  him,  not  knowing 
him  to  be  a  sorcerer  and  their  friend.     The  Apaches  had  gone,  leav 


84    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

ing  the  body  of  the  sorcerer  lying  upon  crossed  arrows.  A  Navaho, 
whom  the  Zuni  met  on  the  road,  and  who  accompanied  him  to  where 
4ie  body  lay,  exclaimed :  "  The  Apaches  have  killed  a  friend." 
'How  do  you  know?"  inquired  the  Zuni.  "Because,"  said  the 
Navaho,  "  it  is  their  custom  and  ours  when  we  kill  a  friend  through 
mistake  to  place  the  body  upon  crossed  arrows  that  all  may  know 
that  a  friend  and  not  an  enemy  has  been  killed."  "  But  how  is  it 
the  Apaches  value  this  man,  who  is  one  of  your  people?"  asked  the 
Navaho;  and  the  Zuni  replied,  "He  was  a  sorcerer." 

All  the  crops  of  the  Zuni  farming  district  of  Pescado  were  de- 
stroyed one  year  by  grasshoppers,  which  came  so  thick  that  they 
made  the  air  black.  It  was  discovered  by  a  man  digging  in  the  field 
that  this  misfortune  was  brought  upon  them  by  a  witch  or  wizard, 
who  had  mixed  together  some  blue  and  red  beans,  a  grasshopper, 
finely  ground  corn  meal,  some  wheat,  and  other  varieties  of  seeds. 
These  he  wrapped  first  in  a  piece  of  white  cotton  cloth,  afterward  in 
red  calico  and  buckskin,  and  buried  three  feet  in  the  ground. 

In  her  own  experiences  with  the  Zunis  Mrs.  Stevenson 
became  fully  aware  of  the  Zuni  habit  of  thought  upon 
the  subject.     She  relates  the  following: 

A  young  man  came  to  the  writer's  camp  one  morning  in  a  state  of 
great  excitement.  He  had  a  very  sick  wife  and  related  that  upon 
leaving  his  house  on  the  previous  night  to  attend  a  meeting  of  his 
fraternity  he  noticed  a  queer  looking  burro  lurking  before  the  house. 
Upon  his  return  he  was  told  by  those  who  sat  with  his  wife  that  a 
large  cat  had  entered  the  house,  and  he  knew  at  once  that  a  witch  or 
wizard  had  been  there.  He  hastened  from  the  house  to  discover  a 
man  wrapped  in  a  blanket,  but  not  in  the  Zuni  fashion ;  his  head  was 
sunk  low  in  the  blanket.  Accosting  this  creature,  whom  he  knew  to 
be  a  wizard,  he  told  him  that  if  his  wife  died,  he  should  inform 
Nai'uchi,  the  elder  brother  Bow  priest,  and  have  him  hanged.  For- 
tunately for  the  accused  the  wife  soon  recovered  her  health. 

A  singular  feature  associated  with  witchcraft  is  that  accused 
persons  are  permitted  to  be  conspicuous  in  religious  entertainments 
and  sometimes  to  aid  in  religious  festivals.  A  man  belonging  to 
the  Hle'zvekwe  (Wood)  fraternity  or  Sword  swallowers,  which 
is  one  of  the  most  important  in  Zuni,  was  regarded  by  a  ma- 
jority of  the  people  as  a  wizard,  yet  he  was  not  debarred  from 
membership  in  his  fraternity.  During  the  last  visit  of  the  writer 
to  Zuni  this  man  entertained  one  of  the  Sha'lako  (giant  gods) 
at   the   annual   ceremonial,   at   which    six   of   these   gods   are   per- 


Among  the  Witches  85 

sonated,  though  it  is  regarded  as  a  high  privilege  to  prepare  one's 
house,  which  must  be  thoroughly  renovated  for  the  reception  of  the 
Sha'lako.  This  poor  fellow,  who  was  poor  also  in  worldly  goods, 
after  having  the  honour  accorded  to  him,  made  every  effort  at  his 
meager  command  to  have  his  house  suitable  for  the  reception  of  the 
god  he  was  to  entertain.  He  laboured  hard  and  long  each  day,  for 
he  was  so  much  despised  for  his  poverty  that  few  would  aid  him. 
During  his  labours  upon  the  improvement  of  his  house,  a  favourite 
patient  of  Nai'uchi's  died ;  but  he  was  not  allowed  to  die  in  peace. 
He  was  interrogated  regarding  the  cause  of  his  trouble  and  impli- 
cated the  member  of  the  Sword  swallowers  above  referred  to,  and 
while  the  invalid  lay  dying,  the  accused  man  was  summoned  and 
tried  by  the  Bow  priesthood  in  his  presence.  The  accused  declared 
he  knew  nothing  of  witchcraft,  but  his  judges  pressed  him  to  tell 
what  he  had  done  to  the  sufferer.  Finally,  realizing  that  pleading 
innocence  would  be  of  no  avail,  he  declared  that  he  injured  the  man 
by  touching  his  throat  with  the  tips  of  his  fingers,  hoping  by  this 
statement  to  inspire  the  jurors  with  his  supernatural  power  and 
thus  save  himself  from  torture;  but  he  was  condemned,  and  re- 
turned to  his  home  to  await  the  hour  of  execution. 

Near  midnight  the  writer  was  notified  that  this  man  was  to  be  put 
to  death.  It  seemed  too  terrible  to  believe,  and  hastening  from  her 
camp  to  the  village  she  met  Nai'uchi  as  he  was  returning  from  the 
deathbed  of  his  patient.  The  great  theurgist  and  elder  brother  Bow 
priest  was  urged  to  withdraw  his  verdict  on  the  ground  that  he 
might  be  mistaken.  Since  he  was  obdurate,  he  was  told  that  the 
United  States  Government  would  certainly  punish  him.  He  re- 
torted :  "  I  am  your  friend.  Friends  do  not  betray  one  another. 
Would  you  betray  me  to  the  soldiers  ?  "  "I  have  not  said  I  would 
inform  upon  you,"  was  the  reply;  "I  am  too  much  your  friend  to 
see  you  suffer."  "  I  shall  hang  this  wizard,  even  though  I  displease 
you,"  he  declared.  "  I  shall  hang  him  though  the  United  States 
Government  put  me  in  prison  for  one  month,  six  months,  a  year, 
or  forever.  He  has  killed  my  child,  and  he  must  die."  The  writer 
and  the  theurgist  soon  reached  the  house  of  the  latter  and  stood  by 
a  lamp  attached  to  the  wall  of  the  large  living  room.  The  light  fell 
upon  Nai'uchi's  face  and  the  expression,  usually  so  kind,  was  now 
set  and  stern.  There  was  nothing  of  rage  expressed,  only  the  firm 
determination  of  a  man  bent  upon  doing  his  duty  though  he  lost  his 
life  by  the  act. 

"  Do  you  care  for  me  at  all  ?  "  asked  the  writer. 

"  I  have  told  you  I  am  your  friend." 

"Will  you  do  one  thing  for  me?" 

"Anything  but  what  you  have  just  asked." 


86    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

"  I  wish  that  you  would  delay  hanging  the  man  until  to-morrow 
night." 

"  So  that  you  can  send  to  Fort  Wingate  and  have  the  soldiers 
come  for  me?  " 

"  No,  I  will  not  send  for  the  soldiers,  nor  will  I  inform  any  one 
upon  you." 

"  Then,  I  will  wait  until  to-morrow  night,  but  the  wizard  shall 
then  be  hanged."  The  position  of  the  writer  was  a  delicate  one. 
The  man  must  be  saved,  but  she  must  not  make  an  enemy  of  a  tried 
friend  and  one  of  the  men  most  important  to  her  in  her  studies. 
All  work  was  suspended  on  the  improvement  of  the  house  of  the 
accused.  On  entering  a  miserable  apartment  on  an  upper  floor  of 
his  house  early  on  the  morning  following  the  writer's  conversation 
with  Nai'uchi,  a  sad  scene  was  presented.  The  accused  sat  upon 
the  floor,  leaning  against  the  wall,  a  picture  of  abject  despair, 
though  perfectly  calm.  His  wife,  who  was  ill,  sat  on  one  side,  and 
his  young  daughter,  ready  to  become  a  mother,  on  the  other.  The 
eyes  of  both  women  were  swollen  and  inflamed  from  weeping,  and 
they  continued  to  weep  as  they  clung  to  the  man  they  loved.  It 
would  not  do  for  the  writer's  presence  in  this  house  to  become 
known.  Taking  the  man's  hand  she  said :  "  Have  faith  in  me ;  I 
will  save  you."  His  face  became  radiant  for  a  moment;  then  the 
stoical  sadness  returned,  and,  smiling  faintly  as  he  thanked  her,  he 
said  :  "  No,  mother ;  you  wish  to  save  me,  but  you  cannot.  Nai'uchi 
has  spoken."  Adding  another  word  of  assurance  the  writer  hur- 
riedly left  the  house  without  being  discovered.  Before  night  came 
she  held  a  court  of  her  own,  Nai'uchi,  the  younger  brother  Bow 
priest,  and  the  accused  being  present,  and  the  result  was  that  the 
unfortunate  was  released.  This  was  brought  about  by  a  declaration 
on  the  part  of  the  writer  that  she  had  deprived  the  man  of  his 
power  of  sorcery;  and  he  was  soon  at  work  upon  his  house,  fitting 
it  for  the  reception  of  a  Sha'lako  god. 

My  host,  Tsnahey,  was  once  intimately  associated  with 
a  witchcraft  case,  the  story  of  which  cannot  fail  to  be 
interesting.  To  the  whites  Tsnahey  is  known  as  Dick 
— Zuni  Dick.  Brought  up  in  the  family  of  the  former 
Indian  trader  who  lived  at  Zuni  for  over  thirty  years  was 
Zuni  Nick.  Nick  and  Dick  when  I  knew  them  did  not 
speak  as  they  passed  by.  All  my  efforts  to  bring  them 
together  failed,  and  from  what  each  of  them  told  me  at 
different   times   I   have   pieced   together   the    following. 


Photograph    by   George   Wharton   James. 

ZUNI   NICK,   SOON   AFTER   HE  WAS   TRIED   AS   A   WIZARD. 


Among  the  Witches  87 

Nick's  bringing-up  naturally  led  him  to  ignore  and  de- 
spise the  superstitions  of  his  people  —  he  simply  absorbed 
the  ideas  daily  talked  in  his  presence  by  white  people 
when  the  ceremonials  and  dances  were  being  performed. 
He  was  evidently  somewhat  of  a  freethinker  and  also  an 
outspoken  lad,  and  after  he  had  been  to  the  white  man's 
school  and  returned  to  Zuni  he  did  not  hesitate  openly 
to  criticise  the  "  ways  of  the  old  "  as  followed  by  the 
Zunis. 

In  course  of  time  Nick  fell  in  love  with  a  Zuni  girl  and 
she  reciprocated  his  affections.  Although  there  was  con- 
siderable opposition  to  their  marriage,  the  young  people 
finally  had  their  way.  Unfortunately  the  marriage  was 
not  a  happy  one.  Nick's  wife  was  the  daughter  of  a 
true  believer  and  she  was  as  firm  and  faithful  in  her 
acceptation  of  the  teachings  of  "  The  Old  "  as  her  parents. 
This  in  itself  was  enough  to  cause  dissension  between 
herself  and  her  husband  and  as  there  were  several  other 
things  that  Nick  constantly  did  which  were  very  objec- 
tionable to  his  wife,  it  was  not  long  before  they  quarreled 
and  Nick  sent  her  home  in  disgrace.  This  was  equivalent 
to  a  divorce.  Naturally  this  proceeding  very  much  of- 
fended the  parents  and  friends  of  Nick's  wife,  and  there 
is  little  doubt  but  that  this  event  was  made  the  occasion 
for  much  that  followed.  Nai'uchi,  one  of  the  chief 
priests,  had  long  looked  with  disfavour  on  Nick  and  his 
disrespectful  attitude.  lie  and  his  brother  medicine  men 
doubtless  got  together  and  hatched  up  the  following 
scheme.  Nick  was  to  be  accused  of  being  a  witch  and 
if  this  could  be  shown,  it  would  subject  him  to  the  severest 
punishments  of  the  tribe.  That  year  everything  seemed 
to  favour  the  plot.  Crops  had  been  bad  for  some  time ; 
several  severe  storms  came  and  washed  out  their  corn 
fields  and  gardens.     A  fierce  wind  blew  off  all  the  growing 


88    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

peaches  from  the  trees.  A  disease  carried  off  a  number 
of  their  sheep  and  goats,  and  to  crown  all,  an  epidemic 
of  small-pox  struck  the  village  and  carried  off  not  only  a 
number  of  children  but  several  of  the  adults. 

It  was  soon  whispered  about  that  Nick  was  responsible 
for  all  these  evil  happenings.  Nick  was  a  witch.  He 
was  shunned  on  every  hand  and  although  he  knew  that 
something  serious  was  in  the  minds  of  the  natives,  it 
never  occurred  to  him  that  he  was  being  charged  with 
sorcery. 

But  he  was  soon  to  have  a  rude  awakening.  One  night 
he  was  awakened  out  of  a  sound  sleep  to  find  himself 
bound  hand  and  foot  and  just  about  to  have  a  gag  placed 
in  his  mouth.  He  was  conveyed  to  one  of  the  under- 
ground kivas  where,  in  solemn  and  silent  conclave,  the 
court  that  was  to  judge  him  was  assembled.  The  head 
priest  sprinkled  a  line  of  sacred  meal  before  him,  about 
three  feet  in  length,  at  the  east  end  of  which  he  placed 
his  Mc-le, —  the  insignia  of  the  order  of  "  Life  Givers." 
A  crystal  about  two  inches  high  was  put  about  midway 
down  the  line.  He  had  a  medicine  bowl  and  basket  of 
sacred  meal  by  his  side.  A  woman  of  his  household  then 
brought  a  vase  of  water  and  a  gourd  dipper  which  she 
placed  by  his  right  side.  Dipping  up  a  gourd  full  of 
water,  he  began  to  pray  in  very  gentle  tones  and  then 
emptied  the  water  into  the  medicine  bowl.  Six  gourdfuls 
were  thus  emptied,  each  accompanied  by  prayers  to  the 
gods  of  the  six  regions  where  dwell  the  beast  gods. 
Medicine  was  afterwards  sprinkled  into  the  water  and 
six  fetiches  dropped  in,  one  for  each  of  the  six  regions, 
then  a  cross  surrounded  by  a  circle  was  formed  on  the 
surface  of  the  water  with  sacred  meal. 

Quite  a  number  of  other  ceremonies  were  gone  through 
and  then  the  accusers  of  Nick  were  called  upon  by  Nai- 


Among  the  Witches 89 

uchi  to  tell  what  they  knew  of  his  evil  doings.  During 
the  whole  of  this  time,  Nick  remained  bound  and  gagged 
so  that  he  could  make  no  reply  to  the  many  accusations 
that  were  hurled  against  him.  ,  When  all  his  accusers 
were  done,  Nai'uchi  asked  for  his  reply.  As  a  rule  at 
such  trials,  the  accused  make  the  most  laborious  efforts 
to  free  themselves  from  the  charges,  but  Nick's  training 
was  such  that  he  refused  to  enter  into  any  defense  and 
at  the  same  time,  defied  the  priest.  This  he  did,  as  he 
afterwards  told  me,  trusting  that  Mr.  Graham  would 
learn  of  his  predicament  and  in  some  way  extricate  him. 

He  defied  the  court  and  used  very  strong  language  in 
denouncing  their  high-handed  procedure.  If  he  were 
injured  in  the  slightest,  he  would  have  word  sent  to  the 
soldiers  at  Fort  Wingate  who  would  certainly  avenge 
any  injustice.  All  this  seemed  to  have  no  effect  upon  the 
court,  and  it  was  finally  decided  that  he  should  be  hanged. 
This  hanging  is  not  done  as  we  do  it,  by  placing  a  rope 
around  the  neck  and  strangling  the  victim.  Instead,  the 
elbows  are  brought  together  as  far  back  as  possible  and 
tied  together  with  a  rawhide  riata.  One  end  of  this  is 
then  thrown  over  a  beam  placed  high  up  on  one  of  the 
walls  for  this  purpose.  This  beam,  by  the  way,  is  a  spe- 
cially consecrated  beam,  taken  from  the  old  church  built 
by  the  Franciscans.  In  very  desperate  cases  the  swing- 
ing up  is  done  from  the  thumbs  and  wrists  instead  of 
from  the  elbows. 

At  the  appointed  time  Nick  was  conducted  to  the  large 
plaza  where  all  the  native  priests  and  warriors  assembled 
with  Nai'uchi.  Gathered  around  them  was  every  youth, 
woman  and  child  in  the  pueblo.  At  a  given  signal  a  half 
dozen  willing  pairs  of  hands  pulled  on  the  rope  and  Nick 
was  hoisted  into  the  air.  Unfortunately  for  the  priests 
they  had  forgotten  to  replace  the  gag  in  Nick's  mouth. 


90    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

When  the  first  twinges  of  pain  caught  him,  he  shrieked 
aloud  and  realizing  that  things  were  now  becoming  des- 
perate, he  shrieked  and  yelled  with  such  vigour  that  for- 
tunately for  him,  his  cries  were  heard  by  Mr.  Graham 
who,  having  had  occasion  to  call  him  a  short  time  before, 
and  receiving  no  answer,  had  somehow  become  suspicious 
that  all  was  not  well.  Hurrying  across  the  stream  to 
the  plaza  with  a  loaded  revolver  in  each  hand,  Mr.  Gra- 
ham was  in  time  to  prevent  further  injury  to  Nick.  He 
commanded  the  warriors  to  lower  the  unfortunate  man, 
and  then  without  any  argument,  cut  him  loose  and  took 
him  back  home,  threatening  dire  vengeance  on  the  priest 
and  all  the  others  if  they  dared  again  to  interfere  with 
his  favourite  who  had  now  become  his  regular  assistant 
in  his  store. 

Undoubtedly  had  not  Mr.  Graham  appeared  in  time, 
Nick  would  have  been  suspended  until  death  occurred. 
When  death  is  delayed  beyond  what  the  priests  consider 
a  reasonable  time,  one  of  them  takes  a  club  and  by  vigor- 
ous blows  on  the  head  of  the  victim  puts  an  end  to  his 
life. 

At  the  time  this  occurred  Dick  was  the  governor  of  the 
pueblo,  and  while  he  had  nothing  to  do  with  the  religious 
ceremonies  or  the  organization  that  had  arrested  and 
tried  Nick,  the  latter  felt  that  he  ought  to  have  exercised 
his  power  as  governor  to  put  a  stop  to  the  proceedings. 
Accordingly  he  went  down  to  Fort  Wingate  and  instead 
of  laying  a  complaint  against  Nai'uchi  and  those  who 
had  actually  punished  him,  he  asked  that  Dick  be  pun- 
ished for  his  failure  to  protect  him.  The  officers  at  Win- 
gate  took  his  view  of  the  question  and  sent  up  for  Dick, 
and  then,  without  a  trial,  or  any  explanation,  kept  the  lat- 
ter in  captivity  for  several  months.  The  result  is  that 
Dick  and  Nick  do  not  speak  as  they  pass  by.     Each  feels 


Among  the  Witches 91 

that  he  was  cruelly  wronged  by  the  other  and  though,  for 
years,  I  have  tried  to  heal  the  breach  and  bring  them  to- 
gether, as  yet  I  have  not  succeeded. 

The  Zunis  still  believe  in  witchcraft,  and  there  is  to 
be  found  in  the  National  Museum  at  Washington,  a  com- 
plete set  of  prayer  plumes  and  other  medicines  used  for 
the  detection  of  witches.  They  were  given  by  Nai'uchi  to 
Mrs.  Stevenson. 

On  one  of  my  visits  I  entered  Zuni  just  at  the  critical 
time  in  a  "  witch's  "  hanging.  The  poor  old  wretch, 
friendless  and  forlorn,  had  been  accused  of  causing  the 
death  of  We-wha,  one  of  the  most  noted  women  of  the 
tribe.  Refusing  to  confess  she  was  strung  up  by  the 
thumbs,  her  hands  tied  behind  her. 

Before  my  horses  were  out  of  the  wagon  I  was  in- 
formed of  what  was  transpiring.  But  I  was  watched, 
and  as  I  hastened  to  the  scene,  the  poor  old  witch,  Melita, 
was  hurried  to  what  was  supposed  to  be  a  place  of  secrecy. 
Going  to  Nai'uchi,  the  Chief  Priest  of  the  Sacred  Bow, 
I  sought  to  find  what  had  become  of  her.  He  refused 
to  let  me  know,  but  I  wTas  later  assured  that  she  was 
somewhere  in  the  great  community  house.  Again  ask- 
ing to  be  led  to  her  I  was  again  refused  most  posi- 
tively. 

Then  I  began  the  search  and  after  several  hours  found 
her,  sick  almost  to  death  as  the  result  of  the  cruel  treat- 
ment she  had  received.  Her  wrists  were  cut  through 
to  the  bone,  her  back  all  lacerated  with  the  beatings 
she  had  received,  and  her  cheeks  even  were  broken  where 
the  blood  had  burst  through  the  veins.  When  I  asked  her 
who  had  beaten  her  so  cruelly,  she  cried  out  "  Hay-tot-si, 
Haytotsi,"  who  was  one  of  Nai'uchi's  assistants,  the 
other  being  Ne-mo-si. 

After  caring  for  her  wounds,  white  friends  were  noti- 


92    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

fied,  who  brought  her  food.  To  prevent  further  molesta- 
tion the  officers  were  sent  for,  and  this  time,  no  tender 
sentiment  was  allowed  to  stand  in  the  way  of  the  actual 
culprits  being  arrested.  They  were  taken  to  jail,  kept 
there  without  trial,  and  then,  many  months  later,  were 
released,  to  return  to  Zuni  and  discuss  the  wisdom  and 
justice  of  the  white  man,  who  so  prides  himself  on  his 
fairness  and  honour,  and  yet  could  keep  prisoners  in  jail, 
contrary  to  law,  and  finally  release  them  contrary  to 
law. 

Of  Nai'uchi's  sincere  belief  in  witchcraft  Mrs.  Steven- 
son writes : 

Nai'uchi  presented  the  complete  set  of  prayer  plumes  and  medi- 
cines to  the  writer,  requesting  her  to  show  them  to  the  President  as 
proof  that  witches  do  exist  in  Zuni ;  for  these  people  had  had  threats 
from  the  United  States  Government  regarding  their  practice  of 
hanging  persons  accused  of  witchcraft.  These  threats,  however, 
were  never  carried  into  execution  until  after  the  writer  had  left 
Zuni  in  1896,  when  Nai'uchi  and  several  others  were  arrested  for 
hanging  a  woman  they  had  accused  of  witchcraft.  Help  came  in 
time  to  save  the  woman  and  troops  were  stationed  in  Zuni  to  protect 
the  Government  teachers  while  Nai'uchi  and  others  were  in  prison 
in  Albuquerque,  awaiting  their  trial.  During  this  period  the  words 
of  the  writer's  poor,  misguided,  but  dear  and  tried,  friend,  Nai'uchi, 
came  often  to  her :  "  They  may  imprison  me  for  one  month,  six 
months,  a  year,  or  forever,  but  I  shall  hang  the  witch  who  destroys 
the  life  of  my  child." 

The  case  referred  to  by  Mrs.  Stevenson  is  the  one  I 
have  already  related,  in  which  Melita  was  rescued  from 
Nai'uchi. 

Cushing  gives  a  most  graphic  account  of  a  witchcraft 
trial  he  attended,  and  of  the  way  he  saved  the  victim's 
life. 

It  was  well  that  we  returned !  The  wind-storms  were  growing 
worse:  day  after  day  they  had  drifted  the  scorching  sand  over  the 
valley,  until  the  springs  were  choked  up  and  the  river  was  so  dry 
that  a  stranger  could  not  have  distinguished  it   from  a  streamless 


Photograph   by   George   Wharton   James. 

MELITA,    THE   DAY   AFTER   SHE   WAS    RESCUED   FROM   HANGING   AS 

A  WITCH. 


Among  the  Witches 93 

arroyo.  The  nation  was  threatened  with  famine.  Many  were  the 
grave  speculations  and  councils  relative  to  the  "  meaning  of  the  gods 
in  thus  punishing  their  children." 

Strange  to  say,  I  was  given  a  prominent  place  in  these,  and  was 
often  appealed  to,  on  account  of  my  reputed  "  knowledge  of  the 
world."  More  and  more  frequent  and  desperate  grew  these  gather- 
ings, until  at  last  a  poor  fellow  named  "  Big  Belly "  was  seized 
and  brought  up  before  them,  accused  of  "  heresy."  The  trial  —  in 
which  I  had  taken  no  part  —  lasted  a  whole  day  and  part  of  a  night, 
when  to  my  surprise  a  body  of  elders  summoned  me,  and  placed  me 
at  the  head  of  their  council.  They  addressed  and  treated  me  as 
chief  counselor  of  their  nation,  which  office  I  held  thenceforward 
for  nearly  two  years.  Among  other  things,  they  asked  what  should 
be  done.  I  inquired  minutely  into  the  case,  and  learned  that  the  cul- 
prit had  opened  one  of  the  sand-choked  springs,  which  proved  to  be 
sacred.  The  gods  were  supposed  to  be  angry  with  the  nation  on 
account  of  his  transgression  —  demanding  the  sacrifice  of  his  life. 
As  impassionately  as  possible,  I  pleaded  that  the  wind-storms  had 
set  in  long  before  he  opened  the  spring,  and  suggested  that  he  be 
made  to  fill  it  up  again  and  to  sacrifice  bits  of  shells  and  turquoise 
to  it.  The  suggestion  was  adopted !  The  additional  penalty  of 
ostracism,  however,  was  laid  upon  him,  and  to  this  day  he  lives  in 
the  farming  pueblo  of  Ki-ap-kwai-na-kwin,  or  Ojo  Caliente. 

One  evil  followed  another.  Many  deaths  occurred,  among  them, 
that  of  a  beautiful  girl,  who  had  been  universally  liked.  Nor  did 
the  wind-storms  abate.  As  a  consequence,  I  heard  one  night  a 
peculiar,  long  war-cry.  It  was  joined  by  another  and  another,  until 
the  sound  grew  strangely  weird  and  ominous.  Then  three  or  four 
men  rushed  past  my  door  yelling:  "A  wizard!  a  wizard!"  The 
tribe  was  soon  in  an  uproar.  The  priests  of  the  Bow  had  seized  an 
old  man  named  the  "  Bat,"  and  in  one  of  their  secret  chambers  were 
trying  him  for  sorcery.  I  was  not  present,  of  course,  at  the  trial ; 
but  at  three  o'clock  in  the  morning  they  dragged  him  forth  to  the 
hill  on  the  north  side  of  the  pueblo.  There  they  tied  his  hands 
behind  him  with  a  rawhide  rope ;  and  passing  the  end  of  the  latter 
over  a  pole,  supported  by  high  crotched  posts,  they  drew  him  up 
until  his  toes  barely  touched  the  ground  and  he  was  bent  almost 
double. 

Then  the  four  chief-priests  of  the  Bow  approached  and  harangued 
him  one  by  one,  but  provoked  no  reply  save  the  most  piteous  moans. 
Day  dawned ;  yet  still  he  hung  there.  The  speeches  grew  louder 
and  more  furious,  until,  fearing  violence,  I  ran  home,  buckled  on 
my  pistol  and  returned.     I  went  straight  to  the  old  man's  side. 

"  Go  back,"  said  the  accusers. 


94    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

"  I  will  not  go  back ;  for  I  come  with  words." 

"  Speak  then,"  said  they. 

"  These,"  said  I.  "  You  may  try  the  old  man,  but  you  must  not 
kill  him.  The  Americans  will  see  you,  or  find  it  out,  and  tell  their 
people,  who  will  say:  'The  Zunis  murdered  one  of  their  own 
grandfathers.'     That  will  bring  trouble  on  you  all." 

"What!  murder  a  wizard?"  they  exclaimed.  "Ho!"  and  for 
a  few  moments  I  grew  hopeless;  for  the  chief-priests  turned  to  the 
old  man,  and  asked,  with  mock  tenderness: 

"Father,  does  it  hurt?" 

"  Ai-o,"  moaned  the  old  man,  in  a  weak  voice,  "  I  die,  I  am  dying." 

"  That's  right,"  retorted  the  priest.  "  Pull  him  up  a  little  higher, 
my  son,"  said  he,  addressing  an  assistant.  "  He  says  it  hurts,  and  I 
have  hopes  he  will  speak."    Then  he  turned  to  me  again. 

"  This  is  our  way,  my  son,  of  bringing  bad  men  to  wisdom.  I 
have  worn  my  throat  out  urging  him  to  speak ;  he  shall  be  let  to 
go." 

"What  shall  I  say?"  piteously  moaned  the  suffering  man. 

"  Say  yes  or  no!  dotard,"  howled  the  priest. 

"  Speak,  grandfather,  speak !  "  said  I,  as  reassuringly  as  I  could, 
at  the  same  time  laying  my  hand  on  his  withered  arm. 

"  Tell  them  to  let  me  down,  then,"  he  pleaded,  "  for  I  can  speak 
not  long  as  I  am;  I  shall  die.     Oh!     I  shall  die." 

"  Thanks !  father,  thanks !  "  said  the  priest,  briskly.  "  Let  him 
down;  he  is  coming  to  his  senses,  I  see." 

They  let  the  sufferer  down  for  a  moment;  and  gazing  on  the 
ground,  he  began : 

"True!  I  have  been  bad.  My  father  taught  me  fifty  years  ago, 
in  the  mountains  of  the  summer  snows.  It  was  medicine  that  I  used. 
You  will  find  a  bundle  of  it  over  the  rafters,  in  my  highest  room." 

One  of  the  attendants  was  immediately  despatched,  and  soon  re- 
turned with  a  little  bunch  of  twigs. 

"  Aye !  that  it  is,  I  used  that.  It  has  covered  me  with  shame ;  but 
I  will  be  better.  I  will  rejoin  my  ti-kia  (sacred  order).  It  will 
surely  rain  within  four  days,  for  if  you  but  let  me  go,  I  shall  join 
my  ti-kia  again." 

"  Will  you  be  wise?  " 

"  Yes !  believe  me." 

"Will  you  stay  in  Zuni?" 

"  Yes  !  believe  me." 

"Will  you  never  more  cause  tears?" 

"  No  !     It  were  a  shame." 

"  Will  you  never  teach  to  others  your  magic  ?  " 

"  No  !  believe  me  — " 


Among  the  Witches 95 

"Thanks!  You  have  spoken.  Let  him  go!  "  said  the  priest,  as  he 
walked  hastily  through  the  crowd  toward  his  home. 

Four  days  passed,  and  no  rain  came ;  nor  did  the  "  Bat "  do  as  he 
had  promised,  for  he  returned  home  only  to  threaten  revenge  on  the 
priesthood,  and  since  the  fifth  day  no  one  outside  of  that  priesthood 
has  ever  seen  a  trace  of  the  "  Bat." 

In  Zuni  law-custom  there  are  but  two  crimes  punishable  by  death 
—  sorcery  and  cowardice  in  battle.  If,  however,  a  man  attempt  the 
life  of  another,  or  even  threaten  it,  he  is  regarded  as  a  wizard;  but 
'no  immediate  measures  are  taken  for  his  correction.  Should  crops 
fail,  wind-storms  prevail,  or  should  the  threatened  man  die,  even 
from  natural  causes,  the  reputed  wizard  is,  when  he  least  expects  it, 
dragged  from  his  bed  at  night  by  the  secret  council  of  the  A-pi- 
thlan-shi-wa-ni,  taken  to  their  chamber  and  tried  long  and  fairly. 
Should  the  culprit  persist  in  silence,  he  is  taken  forth  and  tortured 
by  the  simple  yet  excruciatingly  painful  method  I  have  described, 
throughout  a  "single  course  of  the  sun;"  and  if  still  silent,  again 
taken  to  the  chamber  of  the  priesthood,  whence  he  never  comes  forth 
alive;  nor  do  others  than  members  of  the  dread  organization  ever 
know  what  becomes  of  him.  Rare  indeed  is  the  execution  for  which 
no  other  than  superstitious  reasons  be  adduced.  Even  in  case  of 
the  "  Bat,"  I  learned  that  he  had  attempted  to  poison  his  own  niece, 
the  girl  heretofore  mentioned,  the  death  of  whom,  a  few  weeks  after- 
ward, rendered  him  a  criminal  and  liable  to  condemnation,  not  only 
as  such  but  as  a  sorcerer.  Thus,  like  a  vigilance  committee,  the 
priesthood  of  the  Bow  secretly  tries  all  cases  of  capital  crime  under 
the  name  of  sorcery  or  witchcraft, —  the  war-chief  of  the  nation, 
himself  necessarily  a  prominent  priest  of  the  Bow,  acting  as  exe- 
cutioner, and,  with  the  aid  of  his  sub-chiefs,  as  secretly  disposing 
of  the  body.  On  account  of  this  mysterious  method  of  justice  crime 
is  rare  in  Zuni. 

Lummis,  in  his  association  both  with  Mexicans  and 
Indians,  constantly  came  in  contact  with  witchcraft,  and 
he  relates  some  amusing  incidents  in  connection  there- 
with.    He  says : 

Of  later  years  the  intelligence  of  the  educated  Mexicans  has  ren- 
dered such  trials  no  longer  possible,  and  no  Mexican  would  think 
now  of  bringing  a  witch  into  court ;  but  proceedings  outside  the  law 
are  not  entirely  done  with.  In  the  year  1887,  to  my  knowledge,  a 
poor  old  Mexican  woman  was  beaten  to  death  in  a  remote  town  by 
two  men  who  believed  they  had  been  bewitched  by  her ;  and  no  at- 
tempt was  ever  made  to  punish  her  slayers !     A  few  months  later  I 


96    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

had  the  remarkable  privilege  of  photographing  three  "  witches  "  and 
some  of  the  people  they  had  "  bewitched."  One  Mexican,  of  whom 
I  have  also  a  picture,  claims  that  he  was  permanently  crippled  by 
these  poor  women,  and  his  right  leg  is  sadly  twisted  —  though  most 
of  us  would  see  in  it  more  of  rheumatism  than  of  witchcraft.  But 
you  never  could  make  Patapalo  believe  that.  He  had  offended  the 
women,  and  afterward  thoughtlessly  drank  some  coffee  they  prof- 
fered; and  his  leg  at  once  grew  crooked  —  what  could  be  plainer 
than  that  they  had  bewitched  him? 

A  much  more  intelligent  man  than  the  poor  town-butcher,  Pata- 
palo, tells  —  and  believes  —  a  much  more  astounding  story.  He  in- 
curred the  displeasure  of  a  witch  in  San  Mateo,  and  is  ready  to  make 
oath  that  she  turned  him  into  a  woman !  He  had  to  pay  another 
witch  in  the  distant  canyon  Juan  de  San  Tafoya  to  turn  him  back 
to  a  man  again !  He  is  a  person  of  whose  sincere  belief  in  this 
ridiculous  statement  there  can  be  no  doubt,  and  his  intelligence  in 
other  matters  emphasizes  the  depth  of  his  superstitious  ignorance  in 
this.  I  know  several  other  Mexicans  who  claim  to  have  been  be- 
witched in  the  same  way;  and  the  stories  of  minor  misfortunes  at 
the  hands  of  the  witches  are  innumerable.  They  can  be  heard  in 
any  New  Mexican  hamlet. 

There  are  many  very  curious  details  in  the  Mexican  witch-faith. 
No  witch,  for  instance,  can  pass  a  sign  of  the  cross ;  and  a  couple  of 
pins  or  sticks  placed  in  that  shape  effectually  bars  witches  from  en- 
tering the  room  or  from  emerging  if  the  holy  emblem  is  between 
them  and  the  door.  The  spoken  name  of  God  or  the  Virgin  Mary 
breaks  a  witch's  spell  at  once.  It  is  soberly  related  by  many  people 
of  my  acquaintance  that  they  employed  witches  to  bear  them  pick-a- 
back to  great  distances ;  but  becoming  alarmed  at  the  enormous 
height  to  which  the  witches  flew  with  them,  they  cried,  "  God  save 
me !  "  or  something  of  the  sort,  and  instantly  fell  thousands  of  feet 
to  the  ground,  but  were  not  badly  hurt ! 

Mexican  witches  do  not  fly  about  on  broomsticks,  like  those  in 
whom  our  forefathers  believed,  but  in  an  even  more  remarkable 
fashion.  By  day  they  are  plain,  commonplace  people,  but  at  night 
they  take  the  shapes  of  dogs,  cats,  rats,  or  other  animals,  and  sally 
forth  to  witch-meetings  in  the  mountains,  or  to  prowl  about  the 
houses  of  those  they  dislike.  So  when  the  average  Mexican  sees  a 
strange  cat  or  dog  about  his  home  at  night  he  feels  a  horror  which 
seems  out  of  place  in  a  man  who  has  proved  his  courage  in  bloody 
Indian  wars  and  all  the  perils  of  the  frontier. 

When  witches  wish  to  fly,  they  generally  retain  their  human  form, 
but  assume  the  legs  and  eyes  of  a  coyote  or  other  animal,  leaving 


Among  the  Witches 97 

their  own  at  home.  Then  saying  (in  Spanish,  of  course),  "Without 
God  and  without  the  Virgin  Mary,"  they  rise  into  the  air  and  sail 
away.  A  sad  accident  once  befell  a  male  witch  named  Juan  Perea, 
whom  I  knew  in  San  Mateo,  but  who  died  a  couple  of  years  ago.  It 
was  asserted  that  one  night  he  went  flying  off  with  the  eyes  and 
legs  of  a  cat,  leaving  his  own  on  the  kitchen  table.  His  poor  starved 
shepherd-dog  overturned  the  table  and  ate  the  eyes,  and  Juan  had 
to  go  through  the  rest  of  his  life  wearing  the  green  eyes  of  a  cat! 

In  condemning  these  primitive  peoples  for  their  tena- 
cious adherence  to  this  superstition  let  us  not  forget  that 
it  is  but  little  over  two  hundred  years  ago  that  the  most 
cultured,  refined,  educated  and  pious  of  the  people  of 
New  England  were  guilty  of  the  most  hideous  and  mon- 
strous cruelties  to  poor  and  helpless  people,  generally  old 
women,  who  had  been  accused  of  being  witches.  When 
we  rise  in  our  superiority  to  condemn  the  Indian  and 
Mexican  it  might  be  well  to  picture  before  our  mind's 
eyes  the  dignified  and  holy  Cotton  Mather  expounding 
the  biblical  text  with  all  sincerity,  "  Thou  shalt  not  suffer 
a  witch  to  live." 

When  we  exclaim  at  the  horror  of  the  treatment  of 
Nick  and  Melita  let  us  recall  the  stocks,  the  whippings 
at  the  cart's  tail,  the  ear-  and  nose-slitting  and  then  the 
hanging  and  burning  of  the  helpless  accused  of  New  Eng- 
land. 

Our  own  savageness  is  too  recent  to  justify  our  too 
severe  condemnation  of  those  who,  at  the  present  time, 
are  still  groping  in  the  darkness  from  which  we  have 
but  just  emerged. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

HUNTING    WITH    INDIANS    IN    NEW    MEXICO  X 

White  people  have  gained  a  slight  insight  into  the 
wonderful  hunting  lore  of  the  Pueblo  and  other  Indians 
of  New  Mexico,  but  few  have  more  than  the  faintest  ink- 
ling of  the  fascinating  field  it  covers. 

On  my  first  visit  to  Zuni,  I  purchased  from  a  youth, — 
who  had  been  to  the  Indian  School  at  Carlisle,  and,  there- 
fore, had  become  skeptical  and  "  superior  to  the  religious 
ideas  of  his  people," — a  small  but  beautifully  carved 
stone  figure  of  a  mountain  lion  which  he  said  was  used 
in  hunting.  This  was  all  he  would  tell  me,  so,  when  I 
met  others  of  the  tribe  I  showed  it  and  asked  them  about 
it.  No  sooner  did  they  see  it  than,  almost  breathless 
with  awe,  in  whispers  they  exclaimed :  "  We-ma-he," 
clearly  showing  that  they  were  astounded  at  my  posses- 
sion of  the  creature,  and  surprised  that  no  harm  had 
come  to  me.  Possibly  I  never  might  have  learned  the 
significance  of  the  we-ma-he  had  I  not  later  read  Lieut. 

1  This  chapter  is  far  too  profound  a  discussion  and  presentation  of 
this  subject  to  have  been  written  by  this,  or  any  other,  author,  who 
had  not  actually  lived  with  the  Zunis  for  many  years  and  become 
intimately  acquainted  with  their  inmost  life.  There  are  but  two 
men  who  could  have  written  it.  One  was  Lieut.  Frank  Hamilton 
Cushing,  the  other  his  worthy  successor  in  this  field,  Dr.  Jesse  Wal- 
ter Fewkes.  It  was  written  (and  buried  to  all  but  scientists  in  the 
Government  publications)  by  Lieut.  Cushing,  and  in  accordance  with 
a  pledge  made  to  him  some  short  time  before  he  died  I  am  now  pre- 
senting it  in  this  book  designed  for  popular  reading,  that  a  far  wider 
circle  may  become  familiar  with  his  wonderfully  illuminative  work 
among  these  interesting  aboriginal  people. 

98 


PUEBLO  INDIAN", 


WITH  THROWING  STICK, 
RABBIT    HUNT. 


KF.ADY  FOR  A 


Hunting  with  Indians  in  New  Mexico    99 

Cushing's  lucid  monograph  on  the  subject,  published  in 
the  Second  Annual  Report  of  the  Bureau  of  Ethnology. 
In  this  he  explains  the  religion  or  philosophy  of  the  Zuni 
and  how  his  mind  works  in  regard  to  the  objects  of  Na- 
ture. As  I  have  endeavoured  to  show,  in  the  chapter 
on  the  Religion  of  the  Indians,  he  looks  up  to,  worships, 
Nature  and  all  animals,  birds,  fishes,  reptiles.  Naturally 
the  white  man  asks  why?  He  cannot  see  any  reason 
for  this. 

All  this  is  fully  explained  in  the  myths  of  the  Zuni  — 
called  by  Cushing  the  Zuni  "  Iliad."  Here  is  the  story 
as  translated  by  him : 

In  the  days  when  all  was  new,  men  lived  in  the  four  caverns  of  the 
lower  regions.  In  the  lower-most  one  of  these  men  first  came  to 
know  of  their  existence.  It  was  dark,  and  as  men  increased  they 
began  to  crowd  one  another  and  were  very  unhappy.  Wise  men 
came  into  existence  among  them,  whose  children  supplicated  them 
that  they  should  obtain  deliverance  from  such  a  condition  of  life. 

It  was  then  that  the  "  Holder  of  the  Paths  of  Life,"  the  Sun- 
father,  created  from  his  own  being  two  children,  who  fell  to  earth 
for  the  good  of  all  beings.  The  Sun-father  endowed  these  children 
with  immortal  youth,  with  power  even  as  his  own  power,  and  cre- 
ated for  them  a  bow  —  the  Rain-bow  —  and  arrow  —  the  Lightning. 
For  them  he  also  made  a  shield  like  unto  his  own,  of  magic  power, 
and  a  knife  of  flint,  the  great  magic  war  knife.  The  shield  was  a 
mere  network  of  sacred  cords,  of  cotton  on  a  hoop  of  wood,  and  to 
the  center  of  this  net-shield  was  attached  the  magic  knife. 

These  children  cut  the  face  of  the  world  with  their  magic  knife, 
and  were  borne  down  upon  their  shield  into  the  caverns  in  which 
all  men  dwelt.  There  as  the  leaders  of  men,  they  lived  with  their 
children,  mankind. 

They  listened  to  the  supplication  of  the  priests  —  the  wise  men. 
They  built  a  ladder  to  the  roof  of  the  first  cave  and  widened  with 
their  flint  knife  and  shield  the  aperture  through  which  they  had 
entered.  Then  they  led  men  forth  into  the  second  cavern,  which  was 
larger  and  not  quite  so  dark. 

Ere  long  men  multiplied  and  bemoaned  their  condition  as  before. 
Again  they  besought  their  priests,  whose  supplications  were  once 
more  listened  to  by  the  divine  children.  As  before,  they  led  all 
mankind  into  the  third  world.     Here   it  was   still   larger   and   like 


100    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

twilight,  for  the  light  of  the  Sun  himself  sifted  down  through  the 
opening.  To  these  poor  children  of  the  dark  the  opening  itself 
seemed  a  blazing  sun. 

But  as  time  went  on  men  multiplied  even  as  they  had  before,  and 
at  last,  as  at  first,  bemoaned  their  condition.  Again  the  two  children 
listened  to  their  supplications,  and  it  was  then  that  the  children  of 
men  first  saw  the  light  of  their  father,  the  Sun. 

The  world  had  been  covered  with  water.  It  was  damp  and  un- 
stable. Earthquakes  disturbed  its  surface.  Strange  beings  rose  up 
through  it,  monsters  and  animals  of  prey.  As  upon  an  island  in  the 
middle  of  a  great  water,  the  children  of  men  were  led  forth  into 
the  light  of  their  father,  the  Sun.  It  blinded  and  heated  them  so 
that  they  cried  to  one  another  in  anguish,  and  fell  down,  and  cov- 
ered their  eyes  with  their  bare  hands  and  arms,  for  men  were  black 
then,  like  the  caves  they  came  from,  and  naked,  save  for  a  covering 
at  the  loins  of  rush,  like  yucca  fiber,  and  sandals  of  the  same,  and 
their  eyes,  like  the  owl's,  were  unused  to  the  daylight. 

Eastward  the  two  children  began  to  lead  them,  toward  the  home 
of  the  Sun-father. 

Now,  it  happened  that  the  two  children  saw  that  the  earth  must  be 
dried  and  hardened,  for  whenever  the  foot  touched  the  soil,  water 
gathered  —  as  may  be  seen  even  in  the  rocks  to-day  —  and  the  mon- 
sters which  rose  from  the  deep  devoured  the  children  of  men. 
Therefore  they  consulted  together  and  sought  the  advice  of  their 
creator,  the  Sun-father.  By  his  directions,  they  placed  their  magic 
shield  upon  the  soft  sands.  They  drew  four  lines  a  step  apart  upon 
the  wet  earth.  Then  the  older  brother  said  to  the  younger,  Wilt 
thou,  or  shall  I,  take  the  lead? 

"  I  will  take  the  lead,"  said  the  younger. 

"  Stand  thou  upon  the  last  line,"  said  the  older. 

And  when  they  had  laid  upon  the  magic  shield  the  rainbow,  and 
across  it  the  arrows  of  lightning,  towards  all  the  quarters  of  the 
world,  the  younger  brother  took  his  station  facing  toward  the  right. 
The  older  brother  took  his  station  facing  toward  the  left.  When  all 
was  ready,  both  braced  themselves  to  run.  The  older  brother  drew 
his  arrow  to  the  head,  let  fly,  and  struck  the  rainbow  and  the  light- 
ning arrow  midway  where  they  crossed.  Instantly,  thlu-tchu!  shot 
the  arrows  of  lightning  in  every  direction,  and  fire  rolled  over  the 
face  of  the  earth,  and  the  two  gods  followed  the  courses  of  their 
arrows  of  lightning. 

Now  that  the  surface  of  the  earth  was  hardened  (by  the  heat  of 
the  lightning),  even  the  animals  of  prey,  powerful  and  like  the 
fathers  (gods)  themselves,  would  have  devoured  the  children  of 
men;  and  the  Two  thought  it  was  not  well  that  they  should  all  be 


Hunting  with  Indians  in  New  Mexico     101 

permitted  to  live,  "  for,"  said  they,  "  alike  will  the  children  of  men 
and  the  children  of  the  animals  of  prey  multiply  themselves.  The 
animals  of  prey  are  provided  with  talons  and  teeth ;  men  are  but 
poor,  the  finished  beings  of  earth,  therefore  the  weaker." 

Whenever  they  came  across  the  pathway  of  one  of  these  animals, 
were  he  great  mountain  lion  or  but  a  mere  mole,  they  struck  him 
with  the  fire  of  lightning  which  they  carried  in  their  magic  shield. 
Thin!  and  instantly  he  was  shriveled  and  burnt  into  stone. 

Then  said  they  to  the  animals  that  they  had  thus  changed  to  stone, 
"  That  ye  may  not  be  evil  unto  men,  but  that  ye  may  be  a  great 
good  unto  them,  have  we  changed  you  into  rock  everlasting.  By 
the  magic  breath  of  prey,  by  the  heart  that  shall  endure  forever 
within  you,  shall  ye  be  made  to  serve  instead  of  to  devour  man- 
kind." 

Thus  was  the  surface  of  the  earth  hardened  and  scorched  and 
many  of  all  kinds  of  beings  changed  into  stone.  Thus,  too,  it  hap- 
pens that  we  find,  here  and  there  throughout  the  world,  their  forms, 
sometimes  large  and  like  the  beings  themselves,  sometimes  shriveled 
and  distorted.  And  we  often  see  among  the  rocks  the  forms  of  many 
beings  that  live  no  longer,  which  shows  us  that  all  was  different  in 
the  "  days  of  the  new." 

The  Zunis  regard  any  one  who  finds  these  concretions 
as  blessed  with  great  good  fortune  and  they  call  upon 
him  (or  her)  to  care  for  them  for  the  sake  of  the  magic 
power  that  was  given  to  them  by  the  Two  in  the  "  days 
of  the  new."  "  For,"  say  they,  "  the  spirits  of  the  we- 
mahe  still  live,  and  are  pleased  to  receive  from  us  the 
offerings  of  the  heart  and  the  sacred  necklace  of  treasure, 
hence  they  turn  their  ears  and  the  ears  of  their  brothers 
in  our  direction  that  they  may  hearken  unto  our  prayers 
and  know  our  wants." 

The  Zuni  also  believes  that  the  hearts  of  the  great 
animals  of  prey  are  infused  with  a  spirit  of  magic  in- 
fluence over  the  hearts  of  the  animals  they  prey  upon  — 
the  game  animals;  that  their  breaths  derived  from  their 
hearts,  and  breathed  upon  their  prey,  whether  near  or  far, 
never  fail  to  overcome  them,  piercing  their  hearts  and 
causing  their  limbs  to  stiffen,  and  the  animals  themselves 


102    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

to  lose  their  strength.  Moreover,  the  roar  or  cry  of 
a  beast  of  prey  is  accounted  its  magic  medicine  of  de- 
struction, which,  heard  by  the  game  animals,  is  fatal  to 
them,  because  it  charms  their  senses,  as  does  the  breath 
their  hearts.  Since  the  mountain  lion,  for  instance,  lives 
by  the  blood  and  flesh  of  the  game  animals,  and  by  these 
alone,  he  is  endowed  not  only  with  the  above  powers,  but 
with  peculiar  powers  that  they  possess  in  the  senses  of 
sight  and  smell.  Moreover,  these  powers,  as  derived 
from  his  heart,  are  preserved  in  his  fetich,  since  his  heart 
still  lives,  even  though  his  person  be  changed  to  stone. 

But  the  Zuni  believes,  also,  that  a  special  fetich  be- 
longs to  a  special  world  region,  six  of  which  he  recog- 
nizes, naming  each  with  his  poetic  conceptions  of  its  dis- 
tinguishing characteristic :  the  North  with  its  auroral 
hues,  the  Direction  of  the  Swept  or  Barren  Place;  the 
West,  with  its  blue  Pacific,  the  Direction  of  the  Home 
of  the  Waters  (for  the  Zunis  regard  the  Pacific  as  the 
original  home  of  all  waters)  ;  the  South,  with  its  rosy 
hues,  the  Direction  of  the  Place  of  the  Beautiful  Red;  the 
East,  with  its  white  dawn,  the  Direction  of  the  Home  of 
Day;  the  upper  Region  or  Above,  with  the  many  hues  of 
the  clouded  sky,  the  Direction  of  the  Home  of  the  High ; 
and  the  Lower  Regions,  or  Below,  the  Direction  of  the 
Home  of  the  Low. 

How  the  fetiches  came  to  be  allotted  to  the  guardian- 
ship of  these  respective  world  sections  and  at  the  same 
time  have  authority  committed  to  them  to  control  the 
"  medicine  powers,"  etc.,  which  are  supposed  to  inhere 
to  these  sections  and  be  drawn  from  them  for  man's  bene- 
fit is  told  in  the  following  legend  of  Po-shai-an-k'ia. 
This  personage  is  said  to  have  appeared  in  human  form, 
poorly  clad,  and  therefore  reviled  by  men.  He  taught 
the  ancestors   of   the   Zuni,   Taos,   Oraibi    (Hopi)    and 


Hunting  with  Indians  in  New  Mexico    103 

Coconino  (Havasupai)  Indians  their  agricultural  and 
other  arts,  their  systems  of  worship  by  means  of  plumed 
and  painted  prayer-sticks ;  organized  their  medicine  so- 
cieties ;  and  then  disappeared  by  way  of  an  opening  to 
the  underworld  known  as  Shi-pa-pu-li-ma,  whence  he  de- 
parted for  the  Home  of  the  Sun.  He  is  still  the  conscious 
auditor  of  the  prayers  of  his  children,  the  invisible  ruler 
of  the  spiritual  Shi-pa-pu-li-ma,  and  of  the  lesser  gods 
of  the  medicine  orders,  the  principal  "  Finisher  of  the 
Paths  of  our  Lives."     The  legend  is  as  follows : 

In  ancient  times,  while  yet  all  beings  belonged  to  one  family,  Po- 
shai-an-k'ia,  the  father  of  our  sacred  bands,  lived  with  his  children 
in  the  City  of  the  Mists  —  the  center  of  the  Medicine  Societies  of 
the  world.  There  he  was  guarded  by  his  six  warriors,  toward  the 
north  by  the  Mountain  Lion  (Long  Tail)  ;  toward  the  west  by  the 
Bear  (Clumsy  Foot)  ;  toward  the  south  by  the  Badger  (Black  Mark 
Face)  ;  toward  the  east  by  the  Wolf  (Hairy  Tail)  ;  above  by  the 
Eagle  (White  Cap)  ;  and  below  by  the  Mole.  He  then  divided  the 
universe  into  the  six  regions  named  above.  In  the  center  of  the 
Great  Sea  of  each  of  these  regions  stood  a  very  ancient  Sacred 
Place, —  a  great  mountain  peak.  In  the  north  was  the  mountain 
Yellow,  in  the  west  the  mountain  Blue,  in  the  south  the  mountain 
Red,  in  the  east  the  mountain  White,  above  the  mountain  All-colour, 
and  below  the  mountain  Black. 

Po-shai-an-k'ia  then  said  to  the  mountain  lion :  Long  Tail,  thou 
art  stout  of  heart  and  strong  of  will.  Therefore  give  I  unto  thee 
and  unto  thy  children  forever  the  mastership  of  the  gods  of  prey, 
and  the  guardianship  of  the  Great  Northern  world  (for  thy  coat  is 
of  yellow),  that  thou  guard  from  that  quarter  the  coming  of  evil 
upon  my  children  of  men,  that  thou  receive  in  that  quarter  their 
messages  to  me,  that  thou  become  the  father  in  the  North  of  the 
Sacred  Medicine  orders  all,  that  thou  become  a  Maker  of  the  Paths 
(of  men's  lives). 

Thither  went  the  mountain  lion. 

Then  in  turn  the  Bear  was  sent  to  the  west,  for  his  coat  was  ruddy 
and  marked  with  black  and  white  equally,  the  colours  of  the  land  of 
summer,  which  is  red  and  stands  between  the  day  and  the  night ; 
the  white  wolf  to  the  east,  for  his  coat  was  white  and  gray,  the 
colour  of  the  day  and  dawn ;  the  eagle  to  the  upper  regions,  for 
he  flies  through  the  skies  without  tiring  and  his  coat  was  speckled 
like  the  clouds ;  the  prey  mole  to  the  Lower  regions,  for  he  burrows 


104    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

through  the  earth  without  tiring,  and  his  coat  was  black,  the  colour 
of  the  holes  and  caves  of  the  earth. 

Thus  these  animals  possess  (to  the  Zuni  mind)  not 
only  the  guardianship  of  the  six  regions,  but  also  the 
mastership,  not  merely  in  a  geographic  sense,  but  in  the 
more  mysterious  "  medicine  "  sense  of  the  powers  which 
are  supposed  to  emanate  from  these  regions.  They  also 
act  as  mediators  between  men  and  Po-shai-an-k'ia  and 
conversely,  between  the  latter  and  men.  By  means  of 
the  prayer-plumes  they  convey  messages  from  him  and 
his  associated  gods  to  men.  It  is  important  that  these  two 
phases  of  the  power  and  mission  of  the  prey  animals  be 
understood  and  kept  mentally  separate,  for  they  explain 
clearly  (when  so  recalled)  much  of  what  otherwise  would 
be  incomprehensible  in  the  hunting  and  other  ceremonials 
of  the  Zuni. 

If  a  member  of  any  of  the  Zuni  religious  orders  is 
neglectful  of  his  religious  duties  he  is  liable  at  any  time 
to  be  punished  by  Po-shai-an-k'ia  through  some  one  of 
his  animal  warriors  and  defenders.  Illustrative  of  this, 
the  following  story  is  often  told  by  the  priests  with  great 
emphasis  to  any  neglectful  member. 

Mi-tsi  was  long  a  faithful  memher  of  the  Little  Fire  order,  but 
he  grew  careless,  neglected  his  sacrifices,  and  resigned  his  rank  as 
"  Keeper  of  the  Medicines,"  from  sheer  laziness.  In  vain  the  "  fa- 
thers "  (chief  priests)  warned  him.  He  only  grew  hot  with  anger. 
One  day  Mi-tsi  went  up  on  the  mesas  to  cut  corral  poles.  He  sat 
down  to  eat  his  dinner.  A  great  black  bear  walked  out  of  the 
thicket  near  at  hand  and  leisurely  approached  him.  Mi-tsi  dropped 
his  dinner  and  climbed  a  neighbouring  little  dead  pine  tree.  The 
bear  followed  him  and  climbed  it,  too.  Mi-tsi  began  to  have  sad 
thoughts  of  the  words  of  the  fathers. 

"  Alas !  "  he  cried ;  "  pity  me,  my  father  from  the  westland !  "  In 
vain  he  promised  to  be  good.  Yet  he  knew  it  was  useless  to  plead 
and  that  the  bear  could  not  listen,  for  had  not  Po-shai-an-k'ia  com- 
manded him? 

So  the  black  bear  seized  him  by  the  foot  and  pulled  until  Mi-tsi 


Hunting  with  Indians  in  New  Mexico     105 

screamed  with  pain;  but,  cling  as  he  would  to  the  tree,  the  bear 
pulled  him  to  the  ground.  Then  he  lay  down  on  Mi-tsi  and  pressed 
the  wind  out  of  him  so  that  he  forgot.  The  black  bear  started  to  go; 
but  eyed  Mi-tsi.  Mi-tsi  kicked.  Black  bear  came  and  pressed  his 
wind  out  again.  It  hurt  Mi-tsi,  and  he  said  to  himself,  "  Oh,  dear 
me!  What  shall  I  do?  The  father  thinks  I  am  not  punished 
enough !  "  So  he  kept  very  still.  Black  bear  started  again,  then 
stopped  again,  growled  and  moved  off,  for  Mi-tsi  kept  very  still. 
Then  the  black  bear  went  slowly  away,  looking  at  Mi-tsi  all  the 
while,  until  he  passed  a  little  knoll.  Mi-tsi  crawled  away  and  hid 
under  a  log.  Then,  when  he  thought  himself  man  enough,  he 
started  for  Zuni.  He  was  long  sick,  for  the  black  bear  had  eaten 
his  foot.  He  "  still  lives  and  limps/'  but  he  is  a  good  religionist 
and  attends  strictly  to  his  duties  in  the  Little  Fire  order.  Who  shall 
say  that  Po-shai-an-k'ia  did  not  command? 

Owing  to  their  relationship  to  Po-shai-an-k'ia  the  prey- 
gods  are  given  high  rank  among  the  gods,  as  "  Makers  of 
the  Paths  of  Life."  The  medicine  priests  therefore  hold 
their  fetiches  in  high  veneration,  keeping  them  "  as  in 
captivity  "  as  mediator  between  themselves  and  the  ani- 
mals represented.  In  this  character  they  are  exhorted 
with  elaborate  prayers,  rituals,  dances  and  other  cere- 
monials, the  mere  recital  of  which  would  completely  fill 
this  book.  Grand  sacrifices  of  plumed  and  painted 
prayer-sticks  are  annually  made  by  the  "  Prey  Brother 
Priesthood,"  of  the  medicine  societies,  and  at  the  full 
moon  of  each  month  lesser  sacrifices  of  the  same  kind 
by  the  male  members  of  these  societies,  at  which  elaborate 
prayers  are  offered. 

While  from  all  that  has  been  said  it  is  evident  that  the 
fetich  worship  of  the  Zunis  has  a  most  important  place 
in  their  life  the  practical  considerations  of  food  call  forth 
the  highest  manifestations  of  this  form  of  worship.  It 
is  as  aids  or  directors  in  the  chase  that  the  Wemahe  are 
preeminently  important.  The  special  priests  of  the  fe- 
tiches used  in  the  chase  are  all  members  of  the  "  Great 
Coyote  People,"  and  their  keepers  certain  members  of  the 


106    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

Eagle  and  Coyote  gentes  and  the  Prey  Brother  priest- 
hood. 

The  hunting  fetiches  are  the  same  as  those  supposed 
to  guard  the  six  world  regions,  with  but  two  exceptions. 
These  are,  the  Coyote,  which  takes  the  place  of  the  Black 
Bear  of  the  west,  and  the  Wild  Cat  which  takes  the 
place  of  the  Badger  of  the  south. 

While  all  these  prey  gods  of  the  chase  have  functions 
different  from  those  of  the  six  regions  they  are  yet 
referred  to  special  divisions  of  the  world.  In  explana- 
tion of  this,  however,  quite  another  myth  is  given.  This 
myth  is  part  of  the  great  epic  from  which  the  former 
story  was  taken,  and  it  pictures  the  tribes  of  the  Zunis, 
under  the  guidance  of  the  Two  Children,  and  the  Ka-ka  at 
a  marsh-bordered  lagune  situated  on  the  eastern  shore  of 
the  Little  Colorado,  about  fifteen  miles  north  and  west 
from  the  pueblo  of  San  Juan,  Arizona,  and  nearly  op- 
posite the  mouth  of  the  Rio  Concho.  This  lagune  is 
probably  formed  in  the  basin  or  crater  or  some  extinct 
volcano  or  volcanic  spring,  as  the  two  high  and  wonder- 
fully similar  mountains  on  either  side  are  identical  in 
formation  with  those  in  which  occur  the  Cave-craters 
further  south  on  the  same  river.  It  has,  however,  been 
largely  rilled  in  by  the  debris  brought  down  by  the  Zuni 
river,  which  here  joins  the  Little  Colorado. 

The  following  is  the  myth  of  the  "  Distribution  of  the 
Animals." 

Men  began  their  journey  from  the  Red  River,  and  the  Ka-ka 
(Zuni  ancient  mythical  beings)  still  lived,  as  they  do  now,  at 
Ko-thlu-el-lon-ne  (the  Standing  Place  or  City  of  the  Ka-ka),  when 
the  wonderful  family  of  the  Snail  People,  caused,  by  means  of  their 
magic  power,  all  the  game  animals  in  the  whole  world  round  about 
to  gather  together  in  the  great  forked  canyon-valley  under  their 
town,  and  there  to  be  hidden. 

The  walls  of  this  canyon  were  high  and  unsurmountable,  and  the 


Hunting  with  Indians  in  New  Mexico    107 

whole  valley,  although  large,  was  filled  full  of  game  animals,  so  that 
their  feet  rumbled  and  rattled  together  like  the  sound  of  distant 
thunder,  and  their  horns  crackled  like  the  sounds  of  a  storm  in  a 
dry  forest.  All  round  about  the  canyon  these  passing  wonderful 
Snail  People  made  a  line  of  magic  medicine  and  sacred  meal,  which 
road,  even  as  a  corral,  no  game  animal,  even  though  great  Elk 
or  strong  buck  Deer,  could  pass. 

Now,  it  rained  many  days,  and  thus  the  tracks  of  all  these  animals 
tending  thither  were  washed  away.  Nowhere  could  the  Ka-ka,  or 
the  children  of  men,  although  they  hunted  day  after  day  over  the 
plains  and  mountains,  on  the  mesas  and  along  the  canyon-valleys, 
find  prey  or  trace  of  prey. 

Thus  it  happened  that  after  many  days  they  grew  hungry,  almost 
famished.  Even  the  great  strong  Sha-la-ko  and  the  swift  Sa-la- 
mo-pi-a  walked  zigzag  in  their  trails,  from  the  weakness  of  hunger. 
At  first  the  mighty  Ka-ka  and  men  alike  were  compelled  to  eat  the 
bones  they  had  before  cast  away,  and  at  last  to  devour  the  soles  of 
their  moccasins  and  even  the  deer-tail  ornaments  of  their  dresses, 
for  want  of  the  flesh  of  the  game  animals. 

Still,  day  after  day,  though  weak  and  disheartened,  man  and  the 
Ka-ka  sought  game  in  the  mountains.  At  last  a  great  Elk  was  given 
liberty.  His  sides  shook  with  tallow ;  his  dew-lap  hung  like  a  bag, 
so  fleshy  was  it;  his  horns  spread  out  like  the  branches  of  a  dead 
tree;  and  his  crackling  hoofs  cut  the  sands  and  even  the  rocks  as 
he  ran  westward.  He  circled  far  off  toward  the  Red  River,  passed 
through  the  Round  valley,  and  into  the  northern  canyons.  The 
Sha-la-ko  was  out  hunting.  He  espied  the  deep  tracks  of  the  Elk 
and  fleetly  followed  him.  Passing  swift  and  strong  was  he,  though 
weak  from  hunger,  and  ere  long  he  came  in  sight  of  the  Great  Elk. 
The  sight  gladdened  and  strengthened  him ;  but  alas !  the  Elk  kept 
his  distance  as  he  turned  again  toward  the  hiding-place  of  his 
brother  animals.  On  and  on  the  Sha-la-ko  followed  him,  until  he 
came  to  the  edge  of  a  great  canyon,  and,  peering  over  the  brink, 
discovered  the  hiding-place  of  all  the  game  animals  of  the  world. 

"Aha!  so  here  you  all  are!"  said  he.  "I'll  hasten  back  to  my 
father,  Pa-u-ti-wa,  who  hungers  for  flesh,  alas !  and  grows  weak." 
And  like  the  wind  the  Sha-la-ko  returned  to  Ko-thlu-el-lo-ne.  En- 
tering, he  informed  the  Ka-ka,  and  word  was  sent  out  by  the  swift 
Sa-la-mo-pi-a  to  all  the  We-ma-a-ha-i  for  counsel  and  assistance, 
for  they  now  were  the  fathers  of  men  and  the  Ka-ka.  The  moun- 
tain Lion,  the  Coyote,  the  Wild  Cat,  the  Wolf,  the  Eagle,  the  Falcon, 
the  Ground  Owl,  and  the  Mole  were  summoned,  all  hungry  and 
lean,  as  were  the  Ka-ka  and  the  children  of  men,  from  want  of  the 
flesh  of  the  game  animals.     Nevertheless,  they  were  anxious  for  the 


108    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

hunt,  and  moved  themselves  quickly  among  one  another  in  their 
anxiety.  Then  the  passing  swift  runners,  the  Sa-la-mo-pi-a,  of  all 
colours, —  the  yellow,  the  blue,  the  red,  the  white,  the  many  coloured, 
and  the  black, —  were  summoned  to  accompany  the  We-ma-a-ha-i  to 
the  Snail  People.  Well  they  knew  that  passing  wonderful  were  the 
Snail  People,  and  that  no  easy  matter  would  it  be  to  overcome  their 
medicine  and  their  magic.  But  they  hastened  forth  until  they  came 
near  to  the  canyon.  Then  the  Sha-la-ko,  who  guided  them,  gave 
directions  that  they  should  make  themselves  ready  for  the  hunt. 

When  all  were  prepared,  he  opened  by  his  sacred  power  the  magic 
corral  on  the  northern  side,  and  forth  rushed  a  great  buck  Deer. 

"  Long  Tail,  the  corral  has  been  opened  for  thee.  Forth  comes 
the  game,  seize  him !  "  With  great  leaps  the  Mountain  Lion  over- 
took and  threw  the  Deer  to  the  ground,  and  fastened  his  teeth  in  his 
throat. 

The  corral  was  opened  on  the  western  side.  Forth  rushed  a 
Mountain  Sheep. 

"  Coyote,  the  corral  has  been  opened  for  thee.  Forth  comes  thy 
game ;  seize  him ! "  The  Coyote  dashed  swiftly  forward.  The 
Mountain  Sheep  dodged  him  and  ran  off  toward  the  west.  The 
Coyote  crazily  ran  about,  yelping  and  barking  after  his  game,  but 
the  Mountain  Sheep  bounded  from  rock  to  rock  and  was  soon  far 
away.  Still  the  Coyote  rushed  crazily  about  until  the  Mountain 
Lion  commanded  him  to  be  quiet.  But  the  Coyote  smelled  the  blood 
of  the  Deer  and  was  beside  himself  with  hunger.  Then  the  Moun- 
tain Lion  said  to  him  disdainfully:  "Satisfy  thy  hunger  on  the 
blood  I  have  spilled,  for'  to-day  thou  hast  missed  thy  game ;  and 
thus  ever  will  thy  descendants  like  thee  blunder  in  the  chase.  As 
thou  this  day  satisfiest  thy  hunger,  so  also  by  the  blood  that  the 
hunter  spills  on  the  flesh  that  he  throws  away  shall  thy  descendants 
forever  have  being." 

The  corral  was  opened  on  the  southern  side.  An  Antelope  sprang 
forth.  With  bounds  less  strong  than  those  of  the  Mountain  Lion, 
but  nimbler,  the  Wild  Cat  seized  him  and  threw  him  to  the  ground. 

The  corral  was  opened  on  the  eastern  side.  Forth  ran  the  O-ho- 
li-o,  the  Albino  Antelope.  The  Wolf  seized  and  threw  him.  The 
Jack  Rabbit  was  let  out.  The  Eagle  poised  himself  for  a  moment, 
then  swooped  upon  him.  The  Cotton  Tail  came  forth.  The  Prey 
Mole  waited  in  his  hole  and  seized  him ;  the  Wood  Rat,  the  Falcon 
made  him  his  prey ;  the  Mouse,  and  the  Ground  Owl  quickly  caught 
him. 

While  the  We-ma-a-ha-i  were  thus  satisfying  their  hunger,  the 
game  animals  began  to  escape  through  the  breaks  in  the  corral. 
Forth  through  the  northern  door  rushed  the  Buffalo,  the  great  Elk, 


Hunting  with  Indians  in  New  Mexico     109 

and  the  Deer,  and  toward  the  north  the  Mountain  Lion  and  the 
yellow  Sa-la-mo-pi-a  swiftly  followed  and  herded  them  to  the  world 
where  stands  the  yellow  mountain,  below  the  great  northern  ocean. 

Out  through  the  western  gap  rushed  the  Mountain  Sheep,  herded 
and  driven  by  the  Coyote  and  the  blue  Sa-la-mo-pi-a,  toward  the 
great  western  ocean,  where  stands  the  ancient  blue  mountain. 

Out  through  the  southern  gap  rushed  the  Antelope,  herded  and 
driven  by  the  Wild  Cat  and  the  red  Sa-la-mo-pi-a,  toward  the  great 
land  of  Summer,  where  stands  the  ancient  red  mountain. 

Out  through  the  eastern  gap  rushed  the  Albino  Antelope,  herded 
and  driven  by  the  Wolf  and  the  white  Sa-la-mo-pi-a,  toward  where 
"  they  say  "  is  the  eastern  ocean,  the  "  Ocean  of  Day,"  wherein  stands 
the  ancient  white  mountain. 

Forth  rushed  in  all  directions  the  Jack  Rabbits,  the  Cotton  Tails, 
the  Rats  and  the  Mice;  and  the  Eagle,  the  Falcon,  and  the  Ground 
Owl  circled  high  above,  toward  the  great  "  Sky  Ocean,"  above  which 
stands  the  ancient  mountain  of  many  colours ;  and  they  drove  them 
over  all  the  earth,  that  from  their  homes  in  the  air  they  could  watch 
them  in  all  places ;  and  the  Sa-la-mo-pi-a  of  many  colours  rose  and 
assisted  them. 

Into  the  earth  burrowed  the  Rabbits,  the  Rats,  and  the  Mice,  from 
the  sight  of  the  Eagle,  the  Falcon,  and  the  Ground  Owl ;  but  the 
Prey  Mole  and  the  black  Sa-la-mo-pi-a  thither  followed  them  toward 
the  four  caverns  of  earth,  beneath  which  stands  the  ancient  black 
mountain. 

When  the  earth  and  winds  were  filled  with  rumbling  from  the 
feet  of  the  departing  animals,  the  Snail  People  saw  that  their  game 
was  escaping;  hence  the  world  was  filled  with  the  wars  of  the 
Ka-ka,  the  Snail  People,  and  the  children  of  men. 

Thus  were  let  loose  the  game  animals  of  the  world.  Hence  the 
Buffalo,  the  great  Elk,  and  the  largest  Deer  are  found  mostly  in  the 
North,  where  they  are  ever  pursued  by  the  great  Mountain  Lion ; 
but  with  them  escaped  other  animals,  and  so  not  alone  in  the  North 
are  the  Buffalo,  the  Great  Elk,  and  the  Deer  found. 

Among  the  mountains  and  the  canyons  of  the  West  are  found  the 
Mountain  Sheep  pursued  by  the  Coyote ;  but  with  them  escaped  many 
other  animals,  hence  not  alone  in  the  West  are  the  Mountain  Sheep 
found. 

So,  for  the  same  reason,  that  other  animals  escaped  in  the  same 
direction,  while  we  find  toward  the  South  the  Antelope,  pursued  by 
the  Wild  Cat;  toward  the  East  the  Albino  Antelope,  pursued  by  the 
Wolf ;  they  are  not  found  there  alone. 

In  all  directions  escaped  the  Jack  Rabbits,  Cotton  Tails,  Rats,  and 
Mice;  hence  over  all  the  earth  are  they  found.     Above  them  in  the 


110    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

skies  circle  the  Eagle,  the  Falcon,  and  the  Ground  Owl ;  yet  into 
the  earth  escaped  many  of  them,  followed  by  the  Prey  Mole ;  hence 
beneath  the  earth  burrow  many. 

Thus,  also,  it  came  to  be  that  the  yellow  Mountain  Lion  is  the 
Master  Prey  Being  of  the  North;  but  his  younger  brothers  —  the 
blue,  the  red,  the  white,  the  spotted,  and  the  black  Mountain  Lions  — 
wander  over  the  other  regions  of  earth.  Does  not  the  spotted 
Mountain  Lion  (evidently  the  Ocelot)  live  among  the  high  moun- 
tains of  the  South? 

Thus,  too,  was  it  with  the  Coyote,  who  is  Master  of  the  West, 
but  whose  younger  brothers  wander  over  all  the  regions ;  and  thus, 
too,  with  the  Wild  Cat  and  the  Wolf. 

This  legend  thus  explains  why  each  of  the  Prey  Ani- 
mals is  found  in  Six  colours,  each  colour  determining  the 
world  division  to  which  it  belongs.  Yet  all  are  supposed 
to  yield  allegiance  to  the  chief  representative  of  the  fam- 
ily to  which  they  belong.  For  instance,  the  Mountain 
Lion  is  primarily  god  of  the  north,  but  he  is  supposed 
to  have  younger  brothers  in  each  of  the  five  other  world 
divisions :  in  the  West  the  Blue  mountain  lion ;  in  the 
South  the  Red;  in  the  East  the  White;  in  the  Upper 
Regions  the  Spotted ;  in  the  lower  Regions  the  Black. 

The  result  is  that  one  can  find  a  wonderful  variety  of 
these  We-ma-he,  made  in  different  colours  and  material, 
the  yellow  of  yellow  limestone,  the  blue  of  finely  veined 
azurite,  or  carbonate  of  copper,  the  white  of  white  lime- 
stone, etc. 

In  some  cases  the  eyes  are  inlaid  pieces  of  turquoise, 
and  the  figures  are  generally  smoothly  carved  and  pol- 
ished with  great  age  and  constant  usage. 

The  relative  value  of  these  fetiches  depends  largely 
upon  the  rank  of  the  animal  god  they  represent.  For 
instance,  the  mountain  lion  is  not  only  master  of  the 
North,  which  takes  precedence  over  all  the  other  An- 
cient Sacred  Spaces  or  regions,  but  is  also  the  master 
of  all  the  other  Prey  Gods,  if  not  of  all  other  terrestrial 


Hunting  with  Indians  in  New  Mexico    111 

animals.  Notwithstanding  the  fact  that  the  Coyote,  in 
the  Order  of  the  Hunt  (the  Coyote  Society)  is  given,  for 
traditional  reasons,  higher  sacred  rank  than  the  Moun- 
tain Lion,  he  is,  as  a  Prey  Being,  one  degree  lower,  be- 
ing god  of  the  West,  which  follows  the  North  in  the 
order  of  importance.  Hence  we  find  the  Mountain  Lion 
and  Coyote  fetiches  far  more  prized  than  any  of  the 
others  and  correspondingly  more  numerous.  The  Coyote 
in  rank  is  younger  brother  of  the  Mountain  Lion,  just 
as  the  Wild  Cat  is  younger  brother  of  the  Coyote,  the 
Wolf  of  the  Wild  Cat,  and  so  on  to  the  Mole,  and  less 
important  ground  Owl.  In  relationship  by  blood,  how- 
ever, the  yellow  Mountain  Lion  is  accounted  older 
brother  of  the  red,  white,  yellow,  mottled  or  spotted  and 
black  Coyotes.  So  the  Wild  Cat  of  the  South  is  re- 
garded as  the  older  brother  of  the  wild  cats  of  all  the 
other  five  regions  and  thus  it  is  respectively  with  the 
wolf,  the  eagle,  and  the  mole.  We  find,  therefore,  that 
in  the  north  all  the  gods»of  Prey  are  represented,  as  well 
as  the  Mountain  Lion,  only  they  are  yellow.  In  the 
west  all  are  represented  as  well  as  the  Coyote,  only  they 
are  blue ;  and  thus  throughout  the  remaining  four  regions. 

The  Mountain  Lion  is  further  believed  to  be  the  spe- 
cial hunter  of  the  Elk,  Deer,  and  Bison  (no  longer  an 
inhabitant  of  New  Mexico).  His  fetich,  therefore,  is 
preferred  by  the  hunter  of  these  animals.  So  also,  is 
the  fetich  of  the  Coyote  preferred  by  the  hunter  of  the 
Mountain  Sheep;  that  of  the  Wild  Cat,  by  the  hunter 
of  the  Antelope;  that  of  the  Wolf  by  the  hunter  of  the 
rare  and  highly  valued  Albino  Antelope;  those  of  the 
Eagle  and  Falcon  by  the  hunter  of  Rabbits ;  and  that  of 
the  Mole,  by  the  hunter  of  other  small  game. 

The  exception  to  this  rule  is  individual,  and  founded 
on  the  belief  that  any  one  of  the  Gods  of  Prey  hunts 


112    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

to  some  extent  the  special  game  of  the  other  Gods  of 
Prey.  Hence,  any  person  who  may  discover  either  a 
concretion  or  natural  object  or  an  ancient  fetich  calling 
to  mind  or  representing  any  one  of  the  Prey  Gods  will 
regard  it  as  his  special  fetich,  and  almost  invariably 
prefer  it,  since  he  believes  it  to  have  been  meted  to 
him  by  the  gods. 

Although  these  fetiches  are  thus  often  individual  prop- 
erty, members  of  the  Coyote  Society,  and  of  the  Eagle 
and  Coyote  gentes,  as  well  as  priests  included  in  the 
Prey  God  Brotherhood,  are  required  to  deposit  their 
fetiches,  when  not  in  use,  with  the  "  Keeper  of  the 
Medicine  of  the  Deer,"  who  is  usually,  if  not  always, 
the  head  member  of  the  Eagle  gens. 

It  rests  with  these  memberships  and  these  alone  to 
perfect  the  fetiches  when  found,  and  to  carry  on  at  stated 
intervals  the  ceremonials  and  worship  connected  with 
them. 

When  not  in  use,  either  for  ceremonials  or  for  the 
hunt,  these  tribal  fetiches  are  kept  in  a  very  ancient, 
vessel  of  wicker-work,  in  the  House  of  the  Deer  Medicine, 
which  is  usually  the  dwelling  place  of  the  keeper. 

The  principal  ceremonial  connected  with  the  worship 
of  the  Prey  Beings  takes  place  either  a  little  before  or  a 
little  after  the  winter  solstice,  or  the  national  New  Year, 
and  is  called  "  The  Day  of  the  Council  of  the  Fetiches." 

They  are  all  taken  from  their  place  of  deposit,  and  ar- 
ranged, according  to  species  and  colour,  in  front  of  a 
symbolic  altar  on  the  floor  of  the  underground  council 
chamber.  The  Eagles  and  other  winged  fetiches  are 
suspended  from  the  rafters  by  means  of  cotton  cords. 

The  ceremonials  last  through  the  latter  two-thirds  of 
a  night.  Each  member  on  entering  approaches  the  altar 
and  with  prayer-meal  in  hand  addresses  a  long  prayer 


The  New  Mexico  Desert  Region  in  Winter. 

From  a  Painting  by  Wallace  L.  DelVolf, 


mtii 


C?      jfc:: 


Hunting  with  Indians  in  New  Mexico    113 

to  the  assembly  of  fetiches,  at  the  close  of  which  he 
scatters  the  prayer-meal  over  them,  breathes  on  and  from 
his  hand,  and  takes  his  place  in  the  Council.  An  open- 
ing prayer-chant  lasting  from  one  to  three  hours,  is 
then  sung  at  intervals,  in  which  various  members  dance 
to  the  sound  of  constant  rattles,  imitating  at  the  close 
of  each  stanza  the  cries  of  the  beasts  represented  by*  the 
fetiches. 

At  the  conclusion  of  the  song,  the  "  Keeper  of  the 
Deer  Medicine,"  who  is  the  master  priest  of  the  occasion, 
leads  off  in  the  recitation  of  a  long  metrical  ritual,  in 
which  he  is  followed  by  the  two  warrior  priests  with 
shorter  recitations  and  by  a  prayer  from  another  priest 
(of  uncertain  rank).  During  these  recitations,  responses 
may  be  heard  from  the  whole  assembly,  and  at  their  close, 
at  or  after  sunrise,  all  members  flock  around  the  altar 
and  repeat,  prayer-meal  in  hand,  a  concluding  invocation. 
This  is  followed  by  a  liberal  feast,  principally  of  game, 
which  is  brought  in  and  served  by  the  women,  with  addi- 
tional recitations  and  ceremonials.  At  this  feast,  por- 
tions of  each  kind  of  food  are  taken  out  by  every  member 
for  the  Prey  Gods,  which  portions  are  sacrificed  by  the 
priests,  together  with  the  proper  plume-sticks,  several 
of  which  are  supplied  by  each  member. 

Similar  midnight  ceremonials,  but  briefer,  are  observed 
on  the  occasion  of  the  great  midwinter  tribal  hunts,  the 
times  for  which  are  fixed  by  the  Keeper  of  the  Deer 
Medicine,  and  the  master  and  warrior  priests  of  the 
Coyote  Society. 

Any  hunter,  provided  he  be  one  privileged  to  par- 
ticipate in  the  above  described  ceremonials  —  namely,  a 
Prey  Brother  —  supplies  himself,  when  preparing  for  the 
chase,  not  only  with  his  weapons,  etc.,  but  also  with  a 
favourite  or  appropriate  prey  fetich.     In  order  to  pro- 


114    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

cure  the  latter  he  proceeds,  sooner  or  later  before  start- 
ing, to  the  House  of  the  Deer  Medicine,  where'  the  vessel 
containing  the  fetiches  is  brought  forth  by  the  Keeper 
or  some  substitute  and  placed  before  him.  Facing  in 
the  direction  of  the  region  to  which  belongs  the  par- 
ticular fetich  he  desires  to  use,  he  sprinkles  into  and 
over  the  vessel  sacred  prayer  or  medicine  meals. 

Then,  holding  a  small  quantity  of  the  meal  in  his  left 
hand,  over  the  region  of  his  heart,  he  removes  his  head- 
band and  utters  the  following  prayer : 

This  day,  my  father  (or,  my  mother),  here  I  (as  if),  unexpectedly, 
meet  thee  with  whatsoever  I  have  made  ready  of  the  sacred  things 
of  my  father,  the  priest-gods  of  the  sacred  dances,  the  priest-gods 
of  the  Prey  beings.  These  sacred  things  bringing  I  have  here  over- 
taken thee,  and  with  their  good  fortune  I  here  address  thee.  Wish- 
ing for  that  whereby  thou  hast  being,  I  shall  go  forth  from  here 
prayfully  upon  the  trails  of  my  earth-mother. 

Throughout  the  whole  of  this  great  country,  they  whereby  thou 
hast  being,  the  deer,  by  the  command  of  thy  wind  of  life  (breath), 
wander  about.  It  is  wishing  for  their  flesh  and  blood  that  I  shall 
go  forth  yonder  prayfully  over  the  trails. 

Let  it  be  without  fail  that  thou  shalt  make  me  happy  with  that 
whereby  thou  hast  being.     Grant  unto  me  the  height  of  thy  favour. 

Then  scattering  forth  the  prayer-meal  in  the  direction 
he  proposes  to  take  on  the  hunt,  he  chooses  from  the 
vessel  the  fetich,  and  pressing  it  to  or  toward  his  lips, 
breathes  from  it  and  exclaims  : 

Ah,  thanks,  my  father,  this  day  I  shall  follow  thee  forth  over  the 
trails.     Prayfully  over  the  trails  shall  I  go  out. 

Should  a  party  be  going  to  the  hunt  together,  all  re- 
pair to  the  House  of  the  Deer  Medicine,  repeating,  one 
by  one,  the  above  prayers  and  ceremonials  as  the  fetiches 
are  drawn. 

The  fetich  is  then  placed  in  a  little  crescent-shaped 
bag  of  buckskin  which  the  hunter  wears  suspended  over 


Hunting  with  Indians  in  New  Mexico     115 

the  left  breast  (or  heart),  by  a  buckskin  thong,  which  is 
tied  above  the  right  shoulder.  With  it  he  returns  home, 
where  he  hangs  it  up  in  his  room  and  awaits  a  favourable 
rain-  or  snow-storm,  meanwhile,  if  but  a  few  days  elapse, 
retaining  the  fetich  in  his  own  house. 

If  a  hunter  be  not  a  member  of  the  orders  above  men- 
tioned, while  he  must  ask  a  member  to  secure  a  fetich 
for  him,  in  the  manner  described,  still  he  is  quite  as  privi- 
leged to  use  it  as  is  the  member  himself,  although  his 
chances  of  success  are  not  supposed  to  be  so  good  as  those 
of  the  proper  owner. 

During  his  journey  out  the  hunter  picks  from  the 
heart  of  the  yucca,  or  Spanish  bayonet,  a  few  thin 
leaves,  and  on  reaching  the  point  where  an  animal  which 
he  wishes  to  capture  has  rested,  or  whence  it  has  newly 
taken  flight,  he  deposits,  together  with  certain  sacrifices, 
a  spider  knot,  made  of  four  strands  of  the  yucca  leaves. 
This  knot  must  be  tied  like  the  ordinary  cat-knot,  bent  in- 
variably from  right  to  left,  so  that  the  ends  of  the  four 
strands  shall  spread  out  from  the  center  as  the  legs  of  a 
spider  from  its  body.  The  knot  is  further  character- 
ized by  being  tied  quite  awkwardly,  as  if  by  a  mere  child. 
It  is  deposited  on  the  spot  over  which  the  heart  of  the 
animal  is  supposed  to  have  rested  or  passed.  Then  a 
forked  twig  of  cedar  is  cut  and  stuck  very  obliquely  into 
the  ground,  so  that  the  prongs  stand  in  a  direction  oppo- 
site to  that  of  the  course  taken  by  the  animal  and  imme- 
diately in  front,  as  it  were,  of  the  fore  part  of  its  heart, 
which  is  represented  as  entangled  in  the  knot. 

The  hunter  then  imitates  the  roar  of  the  animal  which 
his  fetich  represents,  and  this  whole  ceremonial  is  com- 
plete. It  is  supposed  to  limit  the  power  of  the  flight  of 
the  animal  sought,  to  confine  him  within  a  narrow  circle, 
and,  together  with  an  additional  ceremonial  which  is  in- 


116    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

variably  performed,  even  without  the  other,  is  supposed  to 
render  it  a  sure  prey.  This  is  performed  only  after  the 
track  has  been  followed  until  either  the  animal  is  in  sight, 
or  a  place  is  discovered  where  it  had  lain  down.  Then, 
in  exactly  the  spot  over  which  the  heart  of  the  animal  is 
supposed  to  have  rested,  the  hunter  deposits  a  sacrifice  of 
corn  pollen,  sacred  black  war  paint, —  a  kind  of  plumbago, 
containing  shining  particles,  and  procured  by  barter  from 
the  Havasupai  Indians,  and  the  sacred  mines  of  the 
West  —  and  prayer  or  sacred  meal,  made  from  white 
seed-corn  (emblematic  of  terrestrial  life  or  of  the  foods 
of  mankind),  fragments  of  shell,  sand  from  the  ocean, 
and  sometimes  turquoise  of  green  stone,  ground  very 
fine,  and  invariably  carried  in  pouches  by  all  members  of 
the  sacred  societies  of  Zuni.  To  this  mixture  sacred 
shell-beads  or  coral  are  sometimes  added.  Then,  taking 
out  the  fetich,  he  breathes  on  it  and  from  it,  and  exclaims 
"  Si ! "  which  signifies  "  the  time  has  come,"  or  that 
everything  is  in  readiness.     He  then  prays: 

Si !  This  day,  my  father,  thou  game  animal,  even  though  thy 
trail  one  day  and  one  night  hast  (been  made)  round  about ;  how- 
ever, grant  unto  me  one  step  of  my  earth-mother.  Wanting  thy 
life-blood,  wanting  thy  flesh,  hence  I  here  address  to  thee  good  for- 
tune, address  to  thee  treasure. 

All  ye  woods  that  fill  (the  country)  round  about  me,  (do)  grasp 
for  me  strongly.  [This  expression  beseeches  that  the  logs,  sticks, 
branches,  brambles,  bushes,  and  vines  shall  impede  the  progress  of 
the  chased  animal.]  My  fathers,  favour  me.  Grant  unto  me  the 
light  of  your  favour,  do. 

The  hunter  then  takes  out  his  fetich,  places  its  nostrils 
near  his  lips,  breathes  deeply  from  them,  as  though  to  in- 
hale the  supposed  magic  breath  of  the  God  of  Prey,  and 
puffs  long  and  quite  loudly  in  the  general  direction 
whither  the  tracks  tend.  He  then  utters  three  or  four 
times  a  long,  long  cry  of  "  Hu-u-u-u!  "     It  is  supposed 


Hunting  with  Indians  in  New  Mexico     117 

that  the  breath  of  the  god  breathed  in  temporarily  by 
the  hunter,  and  breathed  outward  toward  the  heart  of 
the  pursued  animal  will  overcome  the  latter  and  stiffen 
his  limbs,  so  that  he  will  fall  an  easy  prey ;  and  that  the 
low  roar,  as  from  a  beast  of  prey,  will  enter  his  con- 
sciousness and  frighten  him,  so  as  to  conceal  from  him 
the  knowledge  of  any  approach. 

The  hunter  then  rises,  replaces  his  fetich,  and  pursues 
the  trail  with  all  possible  ardour,  until  he  either  strikes 
the  animal  down  by  means  of  his  weapons,  or  so  worries 
it  by  long-continued  chase  that  it  becomes  an  easy  cap- 
ture. Before  the  "  breath  of  life  "  has  left  the  fallen 
deer  (if  it  be  such),  he  places  its  forefeet  back  of  its 
horns  and,  grasping  its  mouth,  holds  it  firmly  closed, 
while  he  applies  his  lips  to  its  nostrils  and  breathes  as 
much  wind  into  them  as  possible,  again  inhaling  from 
the  lungs  of  the  dying  animal  into  his  own.  Then  let- 
ting go  he  exclaims: 

Ah!  Thanks,  my  father,  my  child.  Grant  unto  me  the  seeds  of 
earth  (daily  bread),  and  the  gift  of  water.  Grant  unto  me  the  light 
of  thy  favour,  do. 

As  soon  as  the  animal  is  dead  he  lays  open  its  viscera, 
cuts  through  the  diaphragm,  and  makes  an  incision  in  the 
aorta,  or  in  the  sac  which  encloses  the  heart.  He  then 
takes  out  the  prayer  fetich,  breathes  on  it,  and  addresses 
it  thus : 

Si !  My  father,  this  day  of  the  blood  of  a  game  being  thou  shalt 
water  thyself  (drink).  With  it  thou  shalt  enlarge  (add  unto)  thy 
heart. 

He  then  dips  the  fetich  into  the  blood  which  the  sac 
still  contains,  continuing  the  prayer  meanwhile,  speaking 
very  quietly  but  with  the  utmost  solemnity,  as  fol- 
lows: 


118    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

Likewise,  I,  a  done  being,  with  the  blood,  the  flesh  of  a  raw 
being  (game  animal),  shall  enlarge   (add  unto)   my  heart. 

Which  finished,  he  scoops  up,  with  his  hand,  some  of 
the  blood  and  sips  it,  then,  tearing  forth  the  liver,  eagerly 
devours  a  part  of  it,  and  exclaims,  "  Thanks!  " 

While  skinning  and  quartering  the  game  he  takes 
care  to  cut  out  the  tragus  or  little  inner  lobe  of  the  ear, 
the  clot  of  blood  within  the  heart,  and  to  preserve  some 
of  the  hair.  Before  leaving,  he  forms  of  these  and  of 
the  black  paint,  corn-pollen,  beads  of  turquoise  and  tur- 
quoise dust,  and  sacred  shell  of  broken  shell  and  coral 
beads  before  mentioned,  a  ball,  and  on  the  spot  where 
the  animal  ceased  to  breathe,  he  digs  a  grave,  as  it  were, 
and  deposits  therein,  with  prayer-meal,  this  strange  mix- 
ture, meanwhile  saying  the  following  prayer: 

Si !  This  day,  game  animal,  even  though,  for  a  day  and  a  night 
thy  trail  above  (the  earth)  circled  about  —  this  day  it  has  come  to 
pass  that  I  have  embraced  thee  upward  (from  it).  To  thee  here  I 
address  good  fortune.  To  thee  here  I  address  the  (sacred)  pollen. 
To  thee  here  I  address  treasure.  By  thy  (magic)  knowledge  dress- 
ing thyself  with  this  good  fortune,  with  this  yellow,  with  this  treas- 
ure, do  thou,  in  becoming  a  new  being,  converse  with  (or,  of)  my 
prayer  as  you  wander  to  and  fro. 

That  I  may  become  unfailing  toward  the  game  animals  all,  I  have 
here  addressed  myself  unto  thee  good  fortune,  the  yellow  and 
treasure. 

Grant  unto  me  the  light  of  thy  favour. 

Grant  unto  me  a  good  (journey)  over  the  trail  of  life,  and,  to- 
gether with  children,  make  the  road  of  my  existence,  do. 

During  the  performance  of  these  ceremonials  the  fetich 
is  usually  placed  in  a  convenient  spot  to  dry,  and  at  their 
conclusion,  with  a  blessing,  it  is  replaced  in  the  pouch. 
The  hunter  either  seeks  farther  for  game,  or,  making 
a  pack  of  his  game  in  its  own  skin  by  tying  the  legs  to- 
gether and  crossing  them  over  his  forehead  like  a  burden 
strap,  returns  home  and  deposits  it  either  at  the  door  or 


Hunting  with  Indians  in  New  Mexico     119 

just  within.  The  women  then  come,  and  breathing  from 
the  nostrils,  take  the  dead  animal  to  the  center  of  the 
room,  where,  placing  its  head  toward  the  east,  they  lay  on 
either  side  of  its  body  next  to  the  heart  an  ear  of  corn 
(significant  of  renewed  life),  and  say  prayers,  which, 
though  short,  are  not  less  interesting  and  illustrative  of  the 
subject  than  those  already  given. 

The  fetich  is  returned  to  the  Keeper  of  the  Deer  Medi- 
cine with  thanksgiving  and  a  prayer,  not  unlike  that  of- 
fered on  taking  it  forth.  It  contains  a  sentence  consign- 
ing the  fetich  to  its  house  with  its  relatives,  speaking 
of  its  quenched  thirst,  satisfied  hunger,  and  the  prospects 
of  future  conquests,  etc. 

It  is  believed  that  without  recourse  to  these  fetiches 
or  to  prayers  and  other  inducements  toward  the  game  ani- 
mals, especially  the  deer  tribe,  it  would  be  useless  to  at- 
tempt the  chase.  Untrammeled  by  the  Medicine  of  the 
Deer,  the  power  of  the  fetiches,  or  the  animals  of  prey 
represented,  the  larger  game  is  unconquerable ;  and  no 
man,  however  great  his  endurance,  is  accounted  able  to 
overtake  or  to  weary  them.  It  thus  happens  that  few 
hunters  venture  forth  without  a  fetich,  even  though  they 
belong  to  none  of  the  memberships  before  mentioned. 
Indeed,  the  wearing  of  these  fetiches  becomes  almost  as 
universal  as  is  the  wearing  of  amulets  and  "  medicines  " 
among  other  nations  and  Indian  tribes ;  since  they  are 
supposed  to  bring  to  their  rightful  possessors  or  holders, 
not  only  success  in  the  chase  and  in  war  (in  the  case  of  the 
warriors  or  Priests  of  the  Bow),  but  also  good  fortune  in 
other  matters. 

The  successful  hunter  is  typical  of  possession,  since  the 
products  of  the  chase  yield  him  food,  apparel,  ornament, 
and  distinction.  It  is  therefore  argued  with  strange  logic 
that,  even  though  one  may  not  be  a  hunter,  there  must 


120    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

exist  a  connection  between  the  possessions  of  the  hunter 
and  his  own  possessions  and  that  he  comes  by  these  prin- 
cipally through  the  fetiches.  A  man  therefore  counts  it 
the  greatest  of  good  fortune  when  he  happens  to  find 
either  a  natural  or  artificial  object  resembling  one  of 
the  animals  of  prey.  He  presents  it  to  a  proper  member 
of  the  Prey  Brotherhood,  together  with  the  appropriate 
flint  arrow-point  and  the  desirable  amount  of  ornaments 
for  dressing  and  finishing,  as  soon  as  possible. 

With  the  Zunis  as  with  other  Indian  peoples  there  are 
many  religious  societies.  One  of  the  most  influential 
of  these  is  the  "  Priesthood  of  the  Bow."  This  priest- 
hood has  its  fetiches,  similar  to  the  ones  described,  and 
in  addition  a  higher  being  or  god  known  as  the  "  Knife- 
Feathered  Monster."  This  curious  god  is  the  hero  of 
hundreds  of  folk-lore  tales,  and  the  tutelary  deity  of 
several  of  the  societies  of  Zuni.  He  is  represented  as 
possessing  a  human  form,  furnished  with  flint  knife- 
feathered  pinions,  and  tail.  His  dress  consists  of  the  con- 
ventional terraced  cap,  representative  of  his  dwelling- 
place  among  the  clouds,  and  the  ornaments,  badge  and 
garments  of  the  Ka-ka.  His  weapons  are  the  Great  Flint 
Knife  of  war,  the  Bow  of  the  Skies  (Rainbow),  and 
the  Arrow  of  Lightning,  and  his  Guardians  or  Warriors 
are  the  great  Mountain  Lion  of  the  north  and  that  of 
the  upper  regions. 

He  was  doubtless  the  original  War  God  of  the  Zunis, 
although  now  secondary,  in  the  order  of  war,  to  the 
great  god,  Unahikah,  and  the  two  Children  of  the  Sun 
mentioned  elsewhere. 

Anciently  he  was  inimical  to  man,  stealing  and  carry- 
ing away  to  his  city  in  the  skies  the  women  of  all  nations, 
until  subdued  by  other  gods  and  men  of  magic  powers. 
At  present  he  is  friendly  to  them,  rather  in  the  sense  of 


Hunting  with  Indians  in  New  Mexico     121 

an  animal  whose  food  temporarily  satisfies  him,  than  in 
the  beneficent  character  of  most  of  the  gods  of  Zuni. 

These  fetiches  of  the  Priesthood  of  the  Bow  are  car- 
ried by  the  warriors,  when  abroad,  in  pouches  like  those 
of  the  hunters,  and  in  a  similar  manner.  They  are,  how- 
ever, not  returned  to  the  headquarters  of  the  society  when 
not  in  use,  but,  being  regarded  as  parts  of  a  warrior's 
personal  medicine  of  destruction  are  always  kept  near 
him. 

The  ceremonial  observed  by  a  Priest  of  the  Bow  when 
traveling  alone  in  a  country  where  danger  is  to  be  ap- 
prehended from  the  enemy,  may  be  taken  as  most  il- 
lustrative of  the  regard  in  which  the  fetiches  of  his 
order  are  held. 

Under  such  circumstances  the  warrior  takes  out  his 
fetich  from  the  pouch,  and,  scattering  a  pinch  or  two  of 
sacred  meal  toward  each  of  the  four  quarters  with  his 
right  hand,  holds  it  in  his  left  hand  over  his  breast  and 
kneels  or  squats  on  the  ground  while  uttering  the  follow- 
ing prayer: 

Si !  This  day,  my  fathers,  ye  animal  gods,  although  this  country 
be  filled  with  enemies,  render  me  precious.  That  my  existence  may 
not  be  in  any  way  so  ever  unexpectedly  dared  by  the  enemy,  thus, 
O!  Shelter  give  ye  to  me  (from  them). 

At  this  point,  while  still  continuing  the  prayer,  he 
scratches  or  cuts  in  the  earth  or  sands  with  the  edge  of 
the  arrow-point,  which  is  lashed  to  the  back  or  feet  of 
the  fetich,  a  line  about  five  or  six  inches  in  length. 

(In  order)  that  none  of  the  enemy  may  pass  through  (this  line) 
hence,  O!  Shelter  give  ye  to  me  (from  them).  Long  Tail  (Moun- 
tain Lion),  Knife-feathered  (God  of  the  knife  wings),  O,  give  ye 
shelter  of  my  heart  from  them. 

On  the  conclusion  of  this  prayer  the  fetich  is  breathed 
upon  and   replaced,   or  sometimes  withheld  until  after 


122    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

the  completion  of  the  war  song  and  other  chants  in  which 
the  three  gods  mentioned  above  are,  with  others,  named 
and  exhorted,  thereby,  in  the  native  belief,  rendering  pro- 
tection doubly  certain. 

Before  following  the  trail  of  an  enemy,  on  finding 
his  camp,  or  on  overtaking  and  destroying  him,  many 
ceremonials  are  performed,  many  prayers  are  uttered, 
much  the  same  as  those  described  relative  to  the  chase, 
save  that  they  are  most  elaborate.  As  with  the  hunter, 
so  with  the  warrior,  the  fetich  is  fed  on  the  life-blood 
of  the  slain. 

There  are  other  fetiches  that  the  Zuni  prize  highly 
and  use  as  implements  of  worship,  and  as  amulets  or 
charms  for  a  variety  of  purposes.  They  may  rudely  be 
divided  into  three  classes : 

1.  Concretions  and  other  strange  rock  formations, 
which,  on  account  of  their  forms,  are  thought  to  have 
been  portions  of  the  gods,  of  their  weapons,  implements, 
and  ornaments  or  their  "  wherewithals  of  being." 

2.  The  sacred  relics  of  the  gods,  which  are  supposed 
to  have  been  given  to  man  directly  by  their  possessors, 
in  the  "  days  of  the  new,"  and  include  the  "  Gifts  of  the 
Gods." 

3.  The  magic  "  medicines  "  which  are  used  as  pro- 
tective, curative,  and  productive  agencies  and  are  known 
as  the  "  contained,"  and  the  "  medicines." 

One  object,  a  mere  concretion,  will  have  something 
about  it  suggesting  the  human  scrotum.  This  will  be  re- 
garded as  having  belonged  to  some  ancient  being,  and  will 
be  highly  prized,  not  only  as  a  means  of  approaching  the 
spirit  of  the  god  to  whom  it  is  supposed  to  have  once 
belonged,  but  also,  to  a  young  lover,  as  a  valuable  aid 
in  his  conquests  of  the  woman  of  his  choice,  or  to  a  young 
married  woman  in  her  hope  to  bear  male  children. 


Hunting  with  Indians  in  New  Mexico     123 

Certain  minerals  or  fossils,  etc.,  are  regarded  as  be- 
longing to,  or  parts  of,  the  gods,  yet  will  be  used  as  medi- 
cines of  war  or  the  chase,  or  for  the  purpose  of  produc- 
ing water,  or  stimulating  the  growth  of  crops,  to  say- 
nothing  of  their  efficacy  as  cures,  or  sources  of  strength, 
etc.  One  fetich  by  its  shape  is  supposed  to  be  the  relic 
of  the  weapon  or  tooth  of  a  god,  and  therefore  endowed 
with  magical  "  medicine  "  powers.  Hence  it  is  pre- 
served for  generations  —  with  an  interminable  variety  of 
other  things  —  in  the  Order  of  the  Warriors,  as  the  "  pro- 
tective medicine  of  war."  A  little  of  it,  rubbed  on  a 
stone  and  mixed  with  much  water,  is  a  powerful  medicine 
for  protection,  with  which  the  warrior  fails  not  to  anoint 
his  whole  body  before  entering  battle. 


CHAPTER  IX 

ACOMA,    THE    CITY   OF   THE    CLIFFS 

Undeniably  one  of  the  scenic  wonders  of  the  world, 
Acoma,  to  me,  is  the  most  fascinating  city  in  America. 
Yet  it  is  but  an  Indian  pueblo,  inhabited  by  a  mere  hand- 
ful of  people  —  a  few  hundred, —  and  they  possess  none 
of  the  wealth,  learning,  science,  arts,  craftsmanship,  pro- 
gressiveness  that  go  to  make  up  so  much  of  the  charm 
of  the  general  run  of  our  American  cities. 

There  certainly  is  no  "  general  run "  in  determining 
the  place  Acoma  shall  hold  in  one's  affections.  It  stands 
almost  alone, —  not  quite,  for  there  are  other  mesa  cities 
in  the  West  —  in  its  pure  originality  and  strikingly  assert- 
ive individuality,  qualities  that  present  themselves  so  dar- 
ingly that  one  feels  them  almost  flaunting  in  their  insist- 
ence. 

Imagine  riding  over  a  country  of  valleys,  ravines  cut 
through  great  table-lands,  mesas  or  almost  mountain 
ranges  of  red  or  pinkish  sandstone.  There  are  thousands 
of  acres  of  lava,  which  in  past  ages  flowed  from  an 
adjacent  volcano,  now  a  snow-clad  mountain,  11,000 
feet  high.  Yonder  are  vast  piles  of  accumulated  sand, 
blown  hither  by  the  winds  of  the  centuries.  At  our  feet 
flows  the  lazy  creek  of  San  Jose  de  Guadalupe.  We  pass 
Laguna  —  an  Indian  pueblo  —  on  the  main  line  of  the 
Santa  Fe,  seventy-one  and  a  half  miles  west  of  Albuquer- 
que, and  ten  miles  further  on  turn  squarely  to  the  south. 
In  a  few  minutes  we  are  in  a  valley  elsewhere  described 
in  these  pages  that  transcends  the  imaginative  powers 
of  all  but  world-wide  mountain  travelers.     There  is  noth- 

124 


Acoma,  the  City  of  the  Cliffs         125 

ing  like  it  in  all  the  Middle  West,  East,  North  and  South 
and  scarce  anything  that  approximates  it  in  Europe.  The 
far-famed  Garden  of  the  Gods  in  Colorado  is  a  child's 
playroom  compared  with  its  grand  majesties.  Gibraltar 
after  Gibraltar  arises,  sheer  and  precipitous,  out  of  the 
sand,  with  this  difference,  that  from  whichever  way 
you  approach  them  they  are  equally  bold  and  striking. 
Five  or  six  miles  down  the  valley  we  come  to  the  most 
commanding  "  rock  island  "  of  them  all.  Nearing  its 
base  are  a  number  of  gnarled  and  scraggly  junipers,  while 
at  its  very  foot,  on  all  sides,  are  piles  of  talus  showing  the 
cliff  is  still  in  the  process  of  disintegration.  This  is  the 
Mesa  Encantada,  called  by  the  Indians  "  Katzimo,"  and 
which  forms  the  subject  of  the  next  chapter. 

Passing  this  noble  rock  we  can  see,  on  a  similar,  but 
broader-faced,  cliff,  three  miles  away,  a  long  ridge  that 
we  are  told  is  Acoma  —  the  City  of  the  Cliffs.  First  seen 
of  white  men  by  Hernando  de  Alvarado  and  twenty 
men,  sent  on  by  the  wounded  Coronado  from  Zuni,  it 
dazzled  and  astounded  him  as  it  has  since  done  every 
traveler  that  has  gazed  upon  it. 

There  are  some  scenes  looked  upon  for  the  first  time, 
and  perhaps  never  seen  again,  that  yet  fasten  themselves 
forever  in  one's  memory.  Such  is  the  first  sight  of  New 
York's  gigantic  buildings  and  spider-web-like  bridges 
from  the  deck  of  an  incoming  steamer;  St.  Paul's  tower- 
ing over  London;  the  Pyramids  from  Cairo;  the  Grand 
Canyon;  Fuji-Yama  above  the  clouds;  or  better  still, 
Popocatapetl  or  Mt.  Everest.  Of  a  similar  character  is 
Acoma;  and  it  is  not  a  view  that  grows  less  impressive 
with  the  lapse  of  time.  There  is  a  power,  a  dignity,  a 
majesty,  that  ever  remains,  and  the  oftener  it  is  seen  the 
more  one  yields  to  its  allure. 

Apparently  inaccessible,  how  can  one  reach  the  sum- 


126    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

mit?  There  are  several  trails,  none  of  them  boldly  ap- 
parent, however.  If  one  can  spare  the  time  before  climb- 
ing to  the  top  he  should  go  completely  around  the  mesa. 
He  will  find  it  precipitous  from  every  side,  irregular 
in  shape,  almost  divided  into  two  parts,  like  a  pair  of 
eye-glasses,  a  small  saddle  representing  the  bridge.  But 
almost  in  every  direction,  detached  from  the  main  walls, 
are  towers  and  pillars,  columns  and  rocky  masses  one 
finds  it  hard  to  describe,  but  all  alike  of  great  height  and 
ponderous  majesty.  Here  is  one  of  Lummis's  fine  de- 
scriptions : 

Three  miles  south  of  the  Mesa  Encantada  is  the  most  splendid 
specimen  of  fantastic  erosion  on  this  continent.  An  "  island  "  in  the 
air;  a  rock  with  overhanging  sides  nearly  four  hundred  feet  high, 
seventy  acres  in  area  on  the  fairly  level  top,  indented  with  countless 
great  bays,  notched  with  dizzy  chasms,  flanked  by  vast  buttresses  so 
sheer  Assyrian  in  their  chance  carving  by  the  rain  that  one  could 
believe  the  builders  of  Nineveh  had  learned  their  trade  here,  so 
labyrinthine  in  its  perimeter  that  no  man  will  find  the  last  word  of  it. 

The  commonest  used  trail  to  the  top  is  on  the  south- 
east, where,  originally,  toe-  and  finger-holds  alone  made 
ascent  possible.  In  late  years  rocks  and  split  pieces  of 
cord-wood  have  been  laid  up  as  steps,  rendering  the  trail 
much  easier  of  negotiation.  Yet  there  are  places  where 
the  timid  and  fearful,  men  as  well  as  women,  hesitate  and 
question  their  ability  to  climb. 

A  little  further  around,  where  the  sand  has  been 
whirled  about  by  the  winds  of  centuries  and  piled  close 
to  the  rocky  wall,  a  horse  trail  has  been  laboriously  built 
up,  and  one  may  ride  to  the  summit.  I  say  may  advis- 
ably, for  only  the  more  daring  and  expert  of  cowboys 
would  venture  to  do  so.  On  the  north  side  is  still  an- 
other trail,  practically  made  by  the  piled-up  sand.  It  is 
not  a  commonly  traveled  trail,  however,  the  only  time  I 
know  of  its  being  used  by   any  outsider   was   when  a 


Acoma,  the  City  of  the  Cliffs         127 

dramatic  representation  of  the  coming  of  San  Diego 
to  Spain  was  given  in  Acoma.  The  other  trails  are 
mere  toe-  and  finger-holes  cut  into  the  rocks  where  clefts 
of  erosion  have  rendered  ascent  possible. 

Imagine  an  enemy  attempting  to  scale  trails  of  this 
nature,  with  its  defenders  aware  and  alert.  We  often 
hear  the  expression  about  one  man  standing  off  an  army. 
Here,  were  old  methods  of  warfare  followed,  it  would 
be  literally  true,  for  he  would  be  more  than  athlete  who 
would  hang  on  by  toes  and  fingers  and  yet  use  any  primi- 
tive weapon  of  offense  or  defense. 

How  can  people  live  on  such  a  barren  rocky  height  ? 
Where  is  their  water  supply?  Whence  do  they  gain  their 
food? 

These,  indeed,  are  practical  questions,  and  in  the  light 
of  our  civilization  alone  would  be  hard  to  answer,  for 
the  nearest  spring  is  about  half  a  mile  from  the  base 
of  the  cliff,  and  the  cornfields,  gardens,  and  orchards  of 
the  Acomese  are  several  miles  away. 

Watch  these  maidens,  bearing  ollas  on  their  heads! 
They  are  coming  down  the  trail  for  water.  Do  they 
take  the  comparatively  easy  horse  trail?  No!  See! 
They  balance  their  empty  water-jars  on  their  heads  as 
nonchalantly  and  easily  as  though  they  were  a  part  of 
themselves,  and  fairly  glide  —  almost  fly  it  seems  — 
down  from  toe-hole  to  toe-hole.  Their  return  is  even 
more  wonderful,  for  with  the  ollas  filled  they  make  the 
same  precarious  ascent  in  the  same  easy  fashion  without 
spilling  a  drop. 

When  the  corn  and  other  produce  is  brought  from  the 
fields  it  is  now  generally  taken  upon  the  backs  of  burros, 
yet  I  have  seen  the  heaviest  loads  "  packed  "  up  these  toe- 
trails  on  the  back  of  a  man  as  readily  as  the  maidens  carry 
their  water-jars. 


128    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

"  But  why  is  it  necessary  for  them  to  live  on  such  in- 
accessible heights?  "  asks  the  incredulous  visitor,  who  has 
not  yet  adjusted  himself  to  the  strange  conditions,  and 
can  hardly  believe  what  his  own  eyes  see. 

Go  back  a  few  centuries,  when  these  mesa  heights  were 
first  chosen  as  dwelling  places.  These  were  a  peaceful 
and  sedentary  people.  They  were  weary  of  the  nomadic 
life.  They  wanted  to  settle  down.  Around  them  were 
predatory  tribes,  wild,  savage,  hungry  peoples,  who  knew 
no  law  but  that  of  the  present-day  Hun  —  the  law  of  de- 
sire and  brutal  seizure.  If  they  accumulated  food  it 
was  liable  to  be  ruthlessly  taken  from  them  when  most 
necessary  to  their  existence.  If  they  made  blankets, 
dressed  the  skins  of  animals,  prepared  sandals,  wove  gar- 
ments for  their  women,  made  pottery  —  all,  all,  was  sub- 
ject to  plunder,  and,  indeed,  served  as  an  invitation  to 
the  lawless  roaming  bands  to  come  and  help  themselves. 
Hence  a  site  must  be  chosen  for  their  homes  that  was  hard 
of  access  and  easily  defensible,  where,  the  major  part 
of  the  men  being  away,  a  few,  even  the  women  alone, 
could  hold  the  fort. 

This  motive  is  more  clearly  seen  when  the  top  of  the 
trail  is  reached.  The  town  is  built  in  three  great  parallel 
blocks,  with  the  merest  suggestion  of  an  alley-way  between 
them.  Seen  from  below  the  outer  wall  seems  to  be  part 
of  the  mesa  height,  or  carved  out  of  the  solid  rock.  This 
sheer,  blank  wall  is  three  stories  high  and  presents  a 
bold,  naked,  inhospitable  front  to  the  invader.  On  the 
other  side  is  one  of  the  few  remaining  examples  of  true 
Pueblo  architecture, —  changed,  of  course,  to  meet  the 
conditions  of  our  kinder  and  more  protective  civilization, 
but  still  speaking  clearly  to  those  who  can  hear  of  the 
savage  and  cruel  days  when  it  was  first  erected.  Three 
stories  high,  each  story  a  terrace,  the  second  receding 


Acoma,  the  City  of  the  Cliffs         129 

from  the  first  and  the  third  from  the  second,  the  in- 
habitant climbed  twelve  or  fifteen  feet  to  the  first  roof, 
pulled  the  ladder  up  after  him  and  was  secure  against  an 
enemy  who  had  no  other  weapons  than  bow  and  arrows,  a 
lance,  or  a  battle-ax.  He  lived  in  the  upper  stories,  using 
the  ground  floor  as  storage,  making  of  the  roof  of  one 
story  a  courtyard,  and  an  open-air  living-place  of  the 
one  above,  or  spreading  thereon  his  corn,  melons,  or  beans 
to  dry  in  the  midday  sun. 

Even  those  least  susceptible  to  the  hardships  and  dan- 
gers in  the  lives  of  others  must  be  touched  by  what  this 
type  of  architecture  reveals.  The  dwellers  in  these 
homes  were  surrounded  by  Indians  who  were  hostile, 
cruel  and  rapacious.  Every  comfort  must  be  secondary 
to  safety.  Here,  indeed,  was  the  motto  practically  in- 
vented and  perforce  used  in  every  movement  of  life. — 
Safety  first! 

In  our  life  it  requires  vision,  knowledge,  and  imagina- 
tion to  conceive  of  such  conditions.  Their  every  thought 
must  be  for  safety,  every  eye  trained  to  watchfulness, 
every  muscle  to  activity,  every  child  to  readiness.  Dan- 
ger, wounds,  pillage,  abduction,  death,  might  lurk  be- 
hind every  rock.  Every  moment  cried  out  be  vigilant, 
be  watchful,  be  aware.  Here  was  a  compulsory  educa- 
tion in  a  far  sterner  school  than  a  weak  and  flabby  civili- 
zation has  dreamed  of.  Our  entry  into  the  great  war  has 
given  us  a  taste,  under  new  and  more  inventive  condi- 
tions, of  what  these  primitive  inhabitants  of  America  had 
as  their  steady  diet. 

There  are  two  great,  natural,  rocky  reservoirs  on  the 
Acoma  mesa.  One  is  a  little  below  the  tall  black  wall  of 
defense,  and  the  other  is  on  the  other  section,  away  from 
the  houses.  To  reach  the  first  one,  the  maidens  and 
women  descend  a  steep  trail  and  then  go  down  a  precipi- 


130    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

tous  wall  as  if  into  a  gigantic  well,  scaling  it  as  if  they 
were  big  flies,  their  ollas,  empty  or  full,  as  skillfully  bal- 
anced on  the  tops  of  their  heads  as  if  Nature  had  fitted 
them  there.  On  my  last  visit,  in  December  of  19 17,  the 
water  was  quite  low,  and  until  the  sun  had  reached  beyond 
the  intervening  walls,  was  frozen  over.  A  score  or  more 
of  the  boys  and  girls  had  followed  me  around  for  the 
candy  they  knew  my  pockets  were  always  full  of,  and 
laughingly  I  threw  a  handful  of  it  on  to  the  ice  below. 
In  a  moment  there  was  a  wild  race  and  scramble  down 
the  precarious  footholds  to  get  the  coveted  "  dulces  "  and 
the  spectators  above  had  not  only  the  fun  of  watching 
the  sliding  and  falling  of  the  youngsters  on  the  ice  and 
their  eager  and  good  natured  scuffling  for  the  candy,  but 
also  the  thrill  at  their  skillful  daring  and  perfect  uncon- 
sciousness, as  they  flew  down  that  terrible  and  breathless 
trail. 

Let  us  study  the  houses  of  these  pleasant-faced,  soft- 
voiced,  gentle  and  hospitable  people.  Doors  and  win- 
dows have  been  placed  in  first  story  rooms,  now,  and  they 
are  dwelling  places  instead  of  storage  rooms  and  cellars. 
Yet  most  of  the  people  follow  "  the  ways  of  the  old  "  and 
live  in  the  rooms  on  the  second  and  third  stories.  The 
quaintest  little  steps  lead  from  the  one  to  the  other,  built 
upon  the  dividing  walls,  and  here  and  there  one  finds 
chimneys  made  by  a  convenient  adaptation  of  ollas,  the 
bottoms  knocked  out,  piled,  half  a  dozen  of  them,  one 
above  another  and  cemented  together.  In  harvest  time 
the  roofs  are  covered  with  spread  out  fruit,  vegetables, 
grains,  etc.,  for  drying,  before  they  are  removed  to  the 
store-rooms  below.  Here  and  there,  in  hidden  corners, 
are  bee-hive-like  ovens,  by  the  side  of  which  are  great 
piles  of  cedar  wood,  and  interesting  it  is  to  see  the  busy 
housewives  at  their  cooking   and   baking.     The  fire   is 


Acoma,  the  City  of  the  Cliffs  131 

made  in  the  oven  and  allowed  to  burn  down  to  the  hottest 
kind  of  coals.  These  are  then  scraped  out,  the  oven  floor 
hastily  swept  or  mopped  out,  and  the  bread  or  meat  to  be 
baked  thrust  inside.  Then  a  slab  of  rock  is  placed  as  a 
door  and  its  edges  plastered  with  mud  so  that  no  heat  or 
vapours  can  escape.  When  the  food  is  taken  out  no  chef 
in  the  well-equipped  kitchen  of  a  modern  hotel  can  find 
fault  with  the  way  the  oven  has  performed  its  functions. 
The  corn-grinding  troughs  are  inside  the  houses.  In 
square  compartments  like  boxes  on  the  floor,  the  slabs  of 
basic  rock  are  laid  at  an  angle.  Three,  four,  six  of  these 
boxes  form  a  continuous  series  across  one  end  of  the 
room.  Kneeling  before  these,  the  grinding  stone  sloping 
as  does  a  washboard  in  a  tub,  the  woman  picks  up  a  nar- 
row slab  of  similar  rock,  which,  holding  in  both  hands, 
she  moves  up  and  down  upon  the  fixed  and  larger  slab  in 
the  trough  or  box.  Between  these  two  rocks  the  grain  is 
thrown,  the  upper  side  of  the  narrow  slab  being  beveled 
to  allow  the  kernels  to  fall  in  between  the  two  slabs  and 
thus  be  ground.  With  a  dexterous  hand  the  grinder,  now 
and  again,  reaches  down,  picks  up  the  unground  or  half 
ground  grain,  and  tosses  it  along  the  line  of  the  bevel,  not 
losing  her  rhythmic  up  and  down  movement.  Generally 
she  sings, —  unless,  of  course,  when  white  "  company  "  is 
present, —  and  when  a  dozen,  twenty,  or  more  women,  at 
adjacent  troughs,  or  in  near-by  houses,  all  sing  together 
the  effect  is  unusually  pleasing.  To  those  who  deem  In- 
dian music  a  poetryless,  meaningless,  melodyless  jumble 
of  sounds,  I  commend  the  following,  transcribed  by  Na- 
talie Curtis  —  now  Mrs.  Burlin.  Many  a  time  I  have 
heard  a  solitary  grinder  begin  this  song,  then  in  a  few 
moments,  another  voice  in  another  house  would  take  up 
the  melody :  soon  a  third,  then  a  fourth,  until  the  whole 
street,  or,  mayhap,  the  whole  pueblo  would  resound  and 


132     New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

reecho  the  melody  from  housetop  to  housetop.  Then  the 
sun  would  shine  the  brighter  and  the  air  become  more 
exhilarating  because  of  its  sweetness  and  cheer. 

Xear  the  grinding  trough  is  the  "  pole  of  the  soft 
stuff  "  suspended  by  rawhide  thongs  from  the  roof  beams. 
Upon  this  hang  the  blankets,  mantas  and  other  woven 
materials,  and  the  dressed  skins  of  deer  and  antelope,  for 
this  is  the  clothes-closet,  the  wardrobe,  the  chiffonier  of 
the  Indian  woman. 


Corn-Grinding  Song  1 


CAimJ 


1  Copyright.    Used  by  kind  permission  of  the  author  and  arrange- 
ment with  the  publisher,  G.  Schirmer,  New  York. 


Acoma,  the  City  of  the  Cliffs  133 


Yu  .  weh       pu-nl.u-  -ko   -     e     .     ko  ■  11   -   ka, 

Look  wht  re   Suuth    -   easl  Cl Is  are        bringing      ram, 


Yu  -  weh 
Look  where 


ha  -nl.u-         -ko   -    e      -    ko  -  li  -   kn,_ 
South  -  west       clouds  are      bringing    rain,. 


Til    wa    -  nho    I     -     \u       in         1, 
Life    a    -     new  to         him  who  drinks! 


vn,  -    oi     .      I,  he  -  ye 

Dim     who      drinks!  he  -  ye 

»§: ^ —  -Si- 


ye'_ 


Yu   •  weh  |'M      ul       n     - 

Look  where      South    -     east 


134    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 


ko  -    e     -     ko  .  li  -  ka,_ 
clouds  are      bringing    rain,. 


Yu    weh        h.i-ni-a.  ko         e      -      ko  -  li  -  ka_ 

Look  where   South  -  west      clouds    are        bringing  rain, 


ffi^g^g^i  j^.1  J    i  )>  }>  i  j>  j>  i  g  j  1 1 


•ho  wni-  " — .        -tiT-  an  ni 

•  ho,         won  -  der-         -wa-  -ler, 


Tzi     wa    -    sho     i      .     ya  -  ni-      -i. 

Life      a     .     new   to  him  who    drinks! 


he-ye  ye'_ 

he-ye  yeL 


Yu  -  weh        pu-ni  -  a-         -ko        e-         -ko  -  li    .    ka,_ 
Look   where    South   -   east       clouds   are        bring- ing      rain, 


Acoma,  the  City  of  the  Cliffs 


135 


Yu  .  weh      ha-nl-n-         -ko  -    e     -     ko  •  II  -  ka, 

Look  where  Soulli  -  west       clouds  aro       bring-ing    rain, 


Tzi   wn  •    sho   I  - 
Life    a    -    new  to 


The  sleeping  room  is  also  the  living  quarter  and  except 
where  the  inhabitants  have  been  to  one  of  our  many  In- 
dian schools,  such  as  Carlisle,  Phoenix,  Riverside,  or  have 
attended  an  agency  school  and  there  learned  to  sleep  on 
a  white  man's  bedstead  and  mattress,  the  bed  is  the  floor. 
Sheep  or  deer  skins  are  thrown  down  or  blankets  spread 
out,  and  the  sleep  there  is  just  as  refreshing,  nay,  far 
more  so,  than  upon  the  soft  mattress  of  our  luxurious- 
loving  age. 

When  I  first  visited  the  Indians  there  were  no  tables 
in  use ;  nor  did  one  think  of  a  table-cloth.  The  food  was 
placed  upon  the  floor,  the  liquids  in  baskets  or  clay  bowls, 
and  the  solids  on  saucer-like  or  plaque-baskets  made  by 
the  women.  The  family  and  guests  squatted  down  wher- 
ever each  one  desired,  and  the  women  either  served,  or 
each  one  helped  himself.  It  is  hard  to  make  a  stranger 
to  the  Indians  either  understand  or  believe  that  such  a 
meal,  served  in  this  primitive  fashion,  could  be  dignified 
or  accompanied  with  a  courtesy  that  would  make  it  long 
remembered.     Yet  it  is  so,  and  no  observing  person  could 


136    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

partake  of  such  a  meal  without  being  impressed  and  de- 
lighted, for  it  demonstrates  that  real  "  manners  "  are  not 
solely  the  result  of  civilization  and  the  possession  of  the 
white  race,  but  are  the  unconscious  expression  of  the 
dignity  and  kindness  that  may  exist  within  the  heart  of 
the  rudest  man. 

The  fire-place  of  these  quaint  houses  is  an  open  hearth, 
generally  located  in  a  corner  of  the  room,  the  walls 
of  which  are  white  and  clean,  being  plastered  with  adobe 
and  freshly  white-washed  each  year  before  one  of  the 
annual  fiestas.  Cooking,  boiling,  etc.,  used  to  be  done  in 
baskets,  hot  rocks  being  taken  from  the  fire  and  thrown 
into  the  substance  to  be  cooked  for  that  purpose.  A  stick 
with  a  hooked  or  looped  end  was  used  to  pick  up  the 
rocks  from  the  fire,  or  fish  them  out  of  the  heated  water, 
stew,  or  mush. 

Nowadays,  however,  modern  pots,  pans,  kettles,  skillets 
and  broilers  are  used,  the  Indian  having  taken  kindly  to 
our  foods,  and  our  methods  of  preparing  them,  though 
they  still  preserve  many  of  their  old  habits  of  eating  and 
indulge  in  their  ancient  foods,  ours  being  a  graft  upon 
their  own  rather  than  a  substitution. 

In  marriage  they  are  generally  monogamous,  though 
polygamy  is  not  infrequent  among  them.  The  influences 
of  the  church  and  the  agent  have  been  in  favour  of  the 
former,  of  course,  but  to  the  Indian  it  is  not  a  matter  of 
morals  or  righteousness.  Whether  he  has  one  wife  or 
more  depends  entirely  upon  his  own  will,  his  attractive- 
ness to  the  women,  and  somewhat  upon  his  readiness  and 
willingness  to  assume  the  responsibilities  of  an  enlarged 
matrimonial  experience.  I  was  about  to  write  after  the 
word  "  willingness  "  something  about  "  supporting  "  an 
additional  partner,  but  this  was  purely  involuntary  upon 
my  part,  a  proof  of  the  natural  operations  of  the  brain 


1 

m~    ^B 

I 

H 

■1       wL 

IBi— HUM 

1 

Photograph   by   George   Wharton   James. 

THE  GOVERNOR   OF   LACUNA. 


Acoma,  the  City  of  the  Cliffs  137 

along  instinctive  lines.  For,  naturally,  a  white  man  as- 
sumes, without  thought,  that  he,  the  man,  must  "  sup- 
port "  the  woman.  With  the  Pueblos  no  such  thought 
arises.  The  sexes  help  support  each  other;  it  is  a  genuine 
partnership ;  there  is  no  "  economic  dependence."  The 
woman  is  as  good  a  farmer  as  the  man,  and  while  it  is 
freely  confessed  that  it  is  the  duty  and  privilege  of  the 
man  to  do  the  hunting  of  wild  animals,  the  flocks  of  the 
domestic  sheep  and  goats  are  more  often  the  property 
of  the  woman,  which  her  husband  must  not  touch  or  sell 
without  her  permission. 

In  government  each  of  the  pueblos  has  ever  been  a 
true  republic,  with  each  man  and  woman  having  a  voice 
in  all  of  its  affairs.  Officers  are  elected  annually  and 
perform  the  duties  of  governor,  lieutenant  governor,  war- 
chief,  etc.,  and  a  board  of  principales  discusses  and  de- 
cides upon  matters  of  every  kind  pertaining  to  the  wel- 
fare of  the  people.  More  important  in  their  functions 
than  any  other  officers  are  the  caciques.  These  are  men 
instinctively  chosen,  rather  than  elected  or  appointed,  be- 
cause of  their  high  moral  character,  wisdom  and  general 
helpfulness.  They  are  more  than  the  shamans  or  medi- 
cine men,  although  they  often  act  in  this  capacity.  To 
them  are  referred  all  the  weightier  concerns  of  the  pueblo, 
such  as  the  disposal  of  a  witch  or  wizard,  of  special  pe- 
titions to  Those  Above  to  turn  away  pestilence  or  famine. 
Perhaps  their  chief  function  is  that  of  the  professed  peni- 
tent for  the  sins  of  the  tribe.  It  will  be  recalled  that 
among  the  ancient  Hebrews  the  custom  prevailed  of  send- 
ing a  scape-goat  into  the  wilderness  upon  which  had  been 
"  laid  "  all  the  sins  of  the  people.  In  Leviticus  xvi,  21, 
22,  we  read : 

And  Aaron  shall  lay  both  his  hands  upon  the  head  of  the  live  goat, 
and  confess  over  him  all  the  iniquities  of  the  children  of  Israel,  and 


138    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

all  their  transgressions  in  all  their  sins,  putting  them  upon  the  head 
of  the  goat,  and  shall  send  him  away  by  the  hand  of  a  fit  man  into 
the  wilderness : 

And  the  goat  shall  bear  upon  him  all  their  iniquities  unto  a  land 
not  inhabited :  and  he  shall  let  go  the  goat  in  the  wilderness. 

The  highest  duty  performed  by  the  cacique  is  analogous 
to  that  of  the  scape-goat.  He  himself,  however,  is  the 
priest  who  takes  upon  his  own  head  the  sins,  errors,  mis- 
takes, evils  of  his  people.  With  fastings  and  prayers, 
which  often  last  for  many  days,  he  petitions  "  Those 
Above,"  and  then,  solitary  and  alone,  he  departs  into  the 
wilderness  to  be  gone  so  long  as  he  shall  deem  the  sins 
of  the  people  require.  All  this  is  done  quietly  and  with- 
out display.  No  one  knows  formally  when  it  is  done. 
But,  generally,  a  deep  feeling  of  solemnity  reigns  in  the 
pueblo  during  the  fasting  and  prayer  period  of  the 
cacique. 

There  are  a  score,  a  hundred,  things  connected  with 
pueblo  life  that  one  would  enjoy  describing,  but  in  the 
narrow  limits  of  even  a  lengthy  chapter  of  this  book  it  is 
not  possible.  The  Indian  affords  many  and  varied  points 
for  study  —  his  mythology,  cosmogony,  his  folk-lore,  his 
legends,  his  religion,  his  ceremonies,  his  clan-relationship, 
his  language,  his  social  customs,  and  the  like.  A  score 
of  volumes  as  large  as  this  would  not  suffice  to  contain 
a  simple  presentation  of  them.  The  interested  reader 
must  familiarize  himself  with  the  literature  of  the  sub- 
ject, a  few  of  the  most  important  and  interesting  books 
being  listed  in  the  Bibliography. 

But  this  chapter  would  be  incomplete  without  the  re- 
cital of  some  salient  points  in  the  history  of  Acoma,  the 
account  of  its  siege  and  storming  by  the  Spaniards,  its 
old  church,  the  amusing  story  of  its  old  painting  of  San 
Jose,  with  a  description  of  one  of  its  annual  fiestas. 


Acoma,  the  City  of  the  Cliffs         139 

When  Coronado  was  detained  at  Zuni  by  the  wound 
inflicted  upon  him  by  one  of  its  militant  citizens,  he  sent 
on  Hernando  de  Alvarado  with  twenty  men  to  explore 
the  regions  beyond.  Thus  Alvarado  was  the  first  white 
man  to  see  Acoma,  or  Ah-co,  in  1540,  and  he  reported 
"  it  is  one  of  the  strongest  places  we  have  seen,  because 
the  city  is  on  a  very  high  rock,  with  a  rough  ascent  that 
we  repented  having  gone  up  to  the  place." 

Castefiada  gives  a  fuller  description  which  is  worth 
quoting  complete.     He  says : 

These  people  were  robbers,  feared  by  the  whole  country  round 
about.  The  village  was  very  strong,  because  it  was  up  on  a  rock 
out  of  reach,  having  steep  sides  in  every  direction,  and  so  high  that 
it  was  a  very  good  musket  that  could  throw  a  ball  as  high.  There 
was  only  one  entrance  by  a  stairway  built  by  hand,  which  began  at 
the  top  of  a  slope  which  is  around  the  foot  of  the  rock.  There  was 
a  broad  stairway  for  about  200  steps,  then  a  stretch  of  about  100 
narrower  steps,  and  at  the  top  they  had  to  go  up  about  three  times 
as  high  as  a  man  by  means  of  holes  in  the  rock,  in  which  they  put 
the  points  of  their  feet,  holding  on  at  the  same  time  by  their  hands. 
There  was  a  wall  of  large  and  small  stones  at  the  top,  which  they 
could  roll  down  without  showing  themselves,  so  that  no  army  could 
possibly  be  strong  enough  to  capture  the  village.  On  the  top  they 
had  room  to  sow  and  store  a  large  amount  of  corn,  and  cisterns  to 
collect  snow  and  water.  These  people  came  down  to  the  plain  ready 
to  fight,  and  would  not  listen  to  any  arguments.  They  drew  lines 
on  the  ground  and  determined  to  prevent  our  men  from  crossing 
these,  but  when  they  saw  that  they  would  have  to  fight  they  offered 
to  make  peace  before  any  harm  had  been  done.  They  went  through 
their  forms  of  making  peace,  which  is  to  touch  the  horses  and  take 
their  sweat  and  rub  themselves  with  it,  and  to  make  crosses  with  the 
fingers  of  the  hands.  But  to  make  the  most  secure  peace  they  put 
their  hands  across  each  other,  and  they  keep  this  peace  inviolably. 
They  made  a  present  of  a  large  number  of  (turkey-)  cocks  with 
very  big  wattles,  much  bread,  tanned  deerskins,  pine  (pinion)  nuts, 
flour   (corn  meal),  and  corn. 

A  little  later  Espejo,  on  that  interesting  trip  described 
in  another  chapter,  visited  Acoma,  which  he  thus  de- 
scribes : 


140    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

We  set  out  from  this  province  (Emexes,  now  known  as  Jemez) 
toward  the  west,  and  after  going  three  days,  or  about  fifteen  leagues, 
we  found  a  pueblo  called  Acoma,  where  it  appeared  to  us  there 
must  be  more  than  six  thousand  souls.  It  is  situated  on  a  high 
rock  more  than  fifty  estados  in  height.  In  the  very  rock  stairs  are 
built  by  which  they  ascend  and  descend  from  the  town,  which  is 
very  strong.  They  have  cisterns  of  water  at  the  top  and  many  pro- 
visions stored  within  the  pueblo.  Here  they  gave  us  many  mantas, 
deerskins,  and  strips  of  buffalo-hide,  tanned  as  they  tan  them  in 
Flanders,  and  many  provisions,  consisting  of  maize  and  turkeys. 
These  people  have  their  fields  two  leagues  from  the  pueblo  on  a 
river  of  medium  size,  whose  water  they  intercept  for  irrigating  pur- 
poses, as  they  water  their  fields  with  many  partitions  of  the  water 
near  this  river,  in  a  marsh.  Near  the  fields  we  found  many  bushes 
of  Castilian  roses.  We  also  found  Castilian  onions,  which  grow 
in  the  country  by  themselves,  without  planting  or  cultivation.  The 
mountains  thereabouts  apparently  give  promise  of  mines  and  other 
riches,  but  we  did  not  go  to  see  them  as  the  people  from  there  were 
many  and  warlike.  The  mountain  people  come  to  aid  those  of  the 
settlements,  who  call  the  mountain  people  Querechos.  They  carry 
on  trade  with  those  of  the  settlements,  taking  to  them  salt,  game, 
such  as  deer,  rabbits,  and  hares,  tanned  deerskins,  and  other  things, 
to  trade  for  cotton  mantas  and  other  things  with  which  the  gov- 
ernment pays  them. 

In  other  respects  they  are  like  those  of  the  other  provinces.  In 
our  honour  they  performed  a  very  ceremonious  mitote  and  dance, 
the  people  coming  out  in  fine  array.  They  performed  many  juggling 
feats,  some  of  them  very  clever,  with  live  snakes.  Both  of  these 
things  were  well  worth  seeing.  They  gave  us  liberally  of  food  and 
of  all  else  which  they  had.  And  thus,  after  three  days,  we  left  this 
province. 

From  this  it  would  appear  that  the  Snake  Dance,  which 
now  is  to  be  seen  only  at  the  Hopi  pueblos,  used  to  be 
performed  at  Acoma.  Indeed,  Walter  Hough  assures  us 
that  this  ceremonial  was  wide-spread  in  former  days 
among  the  New  Mexico  pueblos,  and  that  even  the 
Yokuts  of  California  and  the  Mexico  Indians  had  a  simi- 
lar ceremony. 

Fifty-eight  years  after  Alvarado's  appearance,  Juan 
de  Onate,  the  real  conqueror  of  Arizona  and  New  Mexico, 


Acoma,  the  City  of  the  Cliffs         141 

came  to  receive  anew  the  submission  of  the  people  of  this 
"  City  of  the  Cliffs."  Treachery  was  in  the  hearts  of  the 
principalcs  when  they  solemnly  pledged  themselves  to  be 
true  and  submissive  vassals  to  the  crown  of  Spain.  They 
were  diplomats  of  an  early  American  era.  To  them,  the 
end  justified  the  means,  and  lies  and  treachery  were  legiti- 
mate weapons  in  dealing  with  hostile  forces  of  such  over- 
whelming power. 

Having  subscribed  to  the  oath,  the  Acomas  invited 
Juan  de  Onate  to  climb  the  steep  and  perilous  trails  and 
visit  the  city  whose  submission  he  had  received.  After 
gazing  upon  its  scenes  of  interest,  he  was  taken  to  the 
head  of  a  ladder,  which  led  into  the  depths  of  one  of  the 
underground  ceremonial  chambers,  termed  kivas  by  the 
Indians,  but  named  estufas,  or  stoves,  by  the  Spaniards, 
on  account  of  their  stifling  heat.  Would  he  go  below 
and  see  the  ceremonial  chamber?  Just  as  he  was  about 
to  descend,  the  darkness  below  sent  a  shaft  of  suspicion 
into  his  fearless  heart,  and  he  refused  to  go.  Well  for 
him  was  it  that  he  let  prudence  control  his  acts  at  that 
time ;  for,  in  the  darkness  of  the  kiva  a  score  or  more  of 
armed  warriors  were  stealthily  in  waiting,  watching  for 
his  steps  upon  the  ladder,  and,  ere  he  had  reached  the 
bottom,  a  score  of  willing  hands  would  have  been  dyed 
in  his  life  blood,  while  armed  men  above  would  ruthlessly 
have  murdered  his  little  band  of  followers. 

This  course  of  procedure  had  been  urged  by  Zutucapan, 
the  cacique,  who  saw  in  the  presence  of  the  white- faced 
strangers  a  deep  menace  to  the  welfare  of  his  people. 

The  fact  that  Onate  escaped  with  his  life  added  to  the 
bitterness  of  Zutucapan.  He  urged  upon  his  people  the 
importance  of  waging  war  upon  the  Spaniards  should 
they  reappear.  His  hostility  knew  no  bounds;  the  out- 
siders must  meet  nothing  but  a  firm,  determined,  and 


142    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

continuous  resistance.  Such  was  his  power  and  influ- 
ence over  the  Acomese  that  when,  a  few  weeks  later, 
Onate's  maese  de  campo,  Juan  de  Zaldivar,  with  thirty 
men,  on  their  way  to  join  their  leader,  stopped  at  Acoma, 
the  Indians  were  ready  to  fall  in  with  a  plan  that  he  for- 
mulated for  the  complete  destruction  of  the  strangers. 
Offering  food  and  making  every  demonstration  of  friend- 
ship to  the  Spaniards,  these  foolishly  allowed  themselves 
to  be  separated  into  small  groups  on  different  parts  of 
the  mesa,  ostensibly  for  the  purpose  of  securing  supplies 
the  Indians  generously  had  offered.  Suddenly  like  a 
whirling  cyclone  all  the  warriors  of  the  town  fell  upon 
the  hapless  Spaniards  with  flint  knives,  stone  battle  axes, 
heavy  hammers,  bows  and  arrows,  and  war  clubs.  Sur- 
prised, apart,  unready,  these  adventurous  warriors,  who 
had  braved  the  savages  of  thousands  of  miles  of  desert 
marches,  one  by  one  were  slain.  Here  would  be  seen  a 
desperate  but  hopeless  conflict ;  a  mailed  warrior,  back  to 
wall,  blood  streaming  through  his  broken  helmet,  sur- 
rounded by  yelling,  screeching,  howling,  naked  savages, 
all  attacking  at  once  and  with  a  ferocity  altogether  irre- 
sistible. Juan  was  slain,  others  of  his  officers  and  men, 
one  by  one,  licked  the  barren  rock  in  the  agonies  of  death, 
and,  at  last,  five  soldiers  only  remained.  Fortunately, 
they  were  able  to  get  together,  and  thus,  side  by  side,  en- 
couraging each  other,  they  fought,  striking  and  thrusting 
at  every  good  opportunity  into  the  dusky  mass  of  surging 
savagery  which  determinedly  forced  itself  upon  them. 
Back,  foot  by  foot,  they  were  driven.  Step  by  step  they 
came  nearer  to  the  edge  of  those  frightful  cliffs.  Yet 
death  at  the  foot  of  a  yawning  precipice  was  preferable 
to  captivity  and  torture  at  the  hands  of  ruthless  savages ; 
so,  cheering  each  other  with  brave  words,  they  flung 
themselves  over  the  brink  and  commended  their  bodies 


Acoma,  the  City  of  the  Cliffs  143 

and  souls  to  Santiago,  the  patron  saint  of  Spain.  Cour- 
age and  bravery  were  rewarded  in  all  but  one,  who,  fall- 
ing on  the  solid  rocks,  was  dashed  to  pieces.  The  other 
four,  fortunately,  breaking  their  fall  on  the  soft,  ever- 
changing  sand-heaps,  escaped  with  their  lives,  and  were 
soon  in  the  soothing  care  of  their  comrades.  The  fear  of 
their  horses  kept  the  camp  below  from  the  attacks  they 
dreaded,  and,  just  as  soon  the  wounded  soldiers  were 
able  to  travel,  the  little,  sad-hearted  band  hastily  set 
forth,  some  for  the  main  army  of  Juan  de  Onate,  at  San 
Gabriel  de  los  Caballeros,  and  others  to  give  warning  to 
the  scattered  Spaniards  at  Zuni  and  elsewhere  to  gather 
together  at  San  Gabriel  for  mutual  protection. 

What,  now,  should  Onate  do  ?  To  let  the  Acomese  go 
unpunished  was  to  loosen  the  hold  of  the  Spaniards  upon 
the  whole  country,  yet  he  was  under  orders  not  to  make 
war  unless  it  was  absolutely  necessary.  In  his  dilemma 
he  turned  to  the  priesthood  and  asked  that  the  friars  give 
him  an  opinion  as  to  what  justified  war.  This  "  opin- 
ion "  is  still  preserved.  It  is  an  interesting  piece  of  read- 
ing, a  translation  of  which  is  found  in  Read's  History  of 
New  Mexico  (pp.  226-7-8).  It  is  signed  by  Fray 
Alonzo  Martinez,  apostolic  commissary,  and  was  con- 
curred in  by  all  the  other  missionaries  of  the  province. 

Fortified  with  this  document,  which  he  deemed  would 
shield  him  from  the  censure  of  his  superiors,  Onate  sent 
Juan  de  Zaldivar's  brother,  Vicente,  with  seventy  men 
to  punish  the  Acomese.  Think  of  the  audacious  courage 
of  these  men!  In  the  heart  of  a  hostile  country,  seventy 
men,  ill-armed  and  poorly  equipped,  setting  forth  to  wreak 
vengeance  upon  a  city  of  stalwart  Indians,  who  were  so 
warlike  that  the  surrounding  country  was  in  terror  of 
them.  Their  city  was  a  fortress,  and  it  was  built  upon 
the  summit  of  an  almost  inaccessible  cliff,  and  according 


144    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

to  reports,  there  were  not  less  than  three  thousand  war- 
riors to  defend  their  homes  against  this  little  band  of 
Spaniards.  Only  a  few  of  the  latter  carried  the  rude 
flintlock  guns  of  that  time,  the  rest  being  armed  solely 
with  sword  and  lance.  The  artillery  consisted  of  one 
small  howitzer,  carried  on  the  back  of  a  pack-mule.  It 
seemed  a  "  forlorn  hope "  that  any  of  the  Spaniards 
would  ever  return  alive,  yet  they  sternly  and  silently 
marched.  Arrived  at  the  foot  of  the  cliff,  Vicente  sent 
his  sergeant  to  demand  the  surrender  of  the  inhabitants 
and  that  they  come  down  to  be  punished  for  the  murders 
they  had  committed.  Howls  and  shrieks  of  derision  and 
defiance  answered  the  voice  of  the  herald.  The  women 
added  their  voices  of  mockery  to  those  of  the  men,  and 
the  medicine-men  spat  out  their  hatred  as  venom.  Why 
need  they  fear?  Upon  that  rocky  height  no  foe  could 
assail  them ;  they  were  safe,  secure,  and  anyhow,  what 
could  such  a  paltry  little  handful  accomplish  against 
them? 

Who  of  us  is  there  who  would  not  like  to  have  been 
present,  in  spirit,  at  least,  to  have  heard  the  conversation 
of  the  little  band  as  they  camped  that  night  at  the  foot  of 
the  cliff?  With  sentries  posted  to  prevent  surprise,  did 
they  sleep  much?  Were  they  confident  of  their  ultimate 
success,  relying  upon  their  superior  weapons  and  skill, 
or  were  they  fearful  of  the  outcome?  Whatever  their 
thoughts,  they  acted  as  brave  men,  for,  early  in  the  morn- 
ing they  began  their  attack  at  the  north  end  of  the  mesa, 
firing  their  few  flintlocks  to  the  great  astonishment  and 
fear  of  the  Indians.  But  fear  did  not  last  long.  While 
some  were  wounded  and  others  slain,  the  vast  horde 
poured  down  a  shower  of  rocks,  arrows  and  other  missiles 
upon  the  soldiers  beneath.  But  they  were  not  as  crafty 
as  they  were  defiant.     During  the  darkness  of  the  night 


Acoma,  the  City  of  the  Cliffs  145 

twelve  of  the  strongest  of  the  Spanish  arquebusiers  hid 
themselves  and  the  cannon  under  one  of  the  overhanging 
cliffs,  and  under  cover  of  the  confusion  caused  by  the 
early  attack,  stealthily  made  their  way  to  the  other  end 
of  the  cliff,  and  then,  weighted  down  though  they  were 
with  their  heavy  armour  and  unwieldy  guns,  scaled  the 
heights,  dragging  their  cannon  up,  ledge  by  ledge,  until 
it  also,  with  themselves,  was  secure  upon  the  top  of  the 
mesa  upon  which  no  houses  were  built.  This  was  sepa- 
rated from  the  main  mesa  by  a  narrow  chasm.  Still  un- 
discovered, the  Spaniards  loaded  their  howitzer  with  pow- 
der and  a  cobble-stone  and  fired  at  the  houses  beyond, 
thus  signaling  to  their  comrades  of  their  safe  location 
and  also  apprising  the  Acomese  of  the  new  danger  that 
threatened  them. 

That  night,  while  some  guarded  the  horses,  others  went 
and  cut  several  logs  which  they  succeeded  in  dragging, 
with  incredible  effort,  to  the  top  of  the  cliff,  where  their 
gun  was,  and  the  redoubtable  twelve  were  hidden  behind 
the  rocks. 

Daybreak  saw  the  two  forces  divided,  some  at  the 
north  end,  while  others  joined  the  twelve  with  the  gun. 
The  tactics  of  the  latter  were  soon  apparent.  Making  a 
rush,  several  of  them  managed  to  throw  one  of  the  logs 
so  that  one  end  lodged  on  the  further  side  of  the  chasm, 
forming  a  bridge  for  the  invaders  to  cross.  Now  let 
Charles  F.  Lummis  tell  the  story  as  gained  from  Villagra's 
History  of  New  Mexico.  This  poet-soldier  —  for  he 
wrote  his  History  in  verse  —  was  himself  the  hero  of  the 
event  to  be  related.  His  story,  while  pretty  poor  poetry, 
is  one  of  the  chief  sources  of  our  knowledge  of  this  in- 
teresting epoch  in  New  Mexican  history,  and  further 
reference  is  made  to  it  elsewhere.  To  return  to  the  fight. 
Lummis  says : 


146    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

Out  dashed  the  Spaniards  at  their  heels,  and  began  balancing 
across  that  dizzy  "  bridge "  in  the  face  of  a  volley  of  stones  and 
arrows.  A  very  few  had  crossed,  when  one  in  his  excitement  caught 
the  rope  and  pulled  the  log  across  after  him.  It  was  a  fearful  mo- 
ment. There  were  less  than  a  dozen  Spaniards  thus  left  standing 
alone  on  the  brink  of  Acoma,  cut  off  from  their  companions  by  a 
gulf  hundreds  of  feet  deep,  and  surrounded  by  swarming  savages. 
The  Indians,  sallying  from  their  refuge,  fell  instantly  upon  them 
on  every  hand.  As  long  as  the  Spanish  soldier  could  keep  the  In- 
dians at  a  distance,  even  his  clumsy  firearms  and  inefficient  arms 
gave  an  advantage ;  but  at  such  close  quarters  these  very  things  were 
a  fatal  impediment  by  their  weight  and  clumsiness.  Now  it  seemed 
as  if  the  previous  Acoma  massacres  were  to  be  repeated,  and  the 
cut-off  Spaniards  to  be  hacked  to  pieces ;  but  at  this  very  crisis  a 
deed  of  surpassing  personal  valour  saved  them  and  the  cause  of 
Spain  in  New  Mexico.  A  slender,  bright-faced  young  officer,  a  col- 
lege boy  who  was  a  special  friend  and  favourite  of  Onate,  sprang 
from  the  crowd  of  dismayed  Spaniards  on  the  farther  bank,  who 
dared  not  fire  into  that  indiscriminate  jostle  of  friend  and  foe,  and 
came  running  like  a  deer  toward  the  chasm.  As  he  reached  its 
brink  his  lithe  body  gathered  itself,  sprang  into  the  air  like  a  bird, 
and  cleared  the  gulf !  Seizing  the  log,  he  thrust  it  back  with  des- 
perate strength  until  his  companions  could  grasp  it  from  the  farther 
brink;  and  over  the  restored  bridge  the  Spanish  soldiers  poured  to 
retrieve  the  day. 

Then  began  one  of  the  most  fearful  hand-to-hand  struggles  in  all 
American  history.  Outnumbered  nearly  ten  to  one,  lost  in  a  howling 
mob  of  savages  who  fought  with  the  frenzy  of  despair,  gashed  with 
raw-edged  knives,  dazed  with  crushing  clubs,  pierced  with  bristling 
arrows,  spent  and  faint  and  bleeding,  Zaldivar  and  his  mere  handful 
fought  their  way  inch  by  inch,  step  by  step,  clubbing  their  heavy 
guns,  hewing  with  their  short  swords,  parrying  deadly  blows,  pulling 
the  barbed  arrows  from  their  quivering  flesh.  On,  on,  on  they 
pressed,  shouting  the  gallant  war-cry  of  Santiago,  driving  the  stub- 
born foe  before  them  by  still  more  stubborn  valour,  until  at  last 
the  Indians,  fully  convinced  that  these  were  no  human  foes,  fled  to 
the  refuge  of  their  fort-like  houses,  and  there  was  room  for  the 
reeling  Spaniards  to  draw  breath.  Then  thrice  again  the  summons 
to  surrender  was  duly  read  before  the  strange  tenements,  each 
near  a  thousand  feet  long,  and  looking  like  a  flight  of  gigantic 
steps  carved  from  one  rock.  Zaldivar  even  now  wished  to  spare 
unnecessary  bloodshed,  and  demanded  only  that  the  assassins  of  his 
brother  and  countrymen  should  be  given  up  for  punishment.  All 
others  who  should  surrender  and  become  subjects  of  "Our  Lord 


Acoma,  the  City  of  the  Cliffs  147 

the  King "  should  be  well  treated.  But  the  dogged  Indians,  like 
wounded  wolves  in  their  den,  stuck  in  their  barricaded  houses,  and 
refused  all  terms  of  peace. 

The  rock  was  captured,  but  the  town  remained.  A  pueblo  is  a 
fortress  in  itself ;  and  now  Zaldivar  had  to  storm  Acoma  house  by 
house,  room  by  room.  The  little  pedrero  was  dragged  in  front  of 
the  first  row  of  houses,  and  soon  began  to  deliver  its  slow  fire. 
As  the  adobe  walls  crumbled  under  the  steady  battering  of  the 
stone  cannon-balls,  they  only  formed  great  barricades  of  clay, 
which  even  our  modern  artillery  would  not  pierce ;  and  each  had  to 
be  carried  separately  at  the  point  of  the  sword.  Some  of  the 
fallen  houses  caught  fire  from  their  own  fogones;  and  soon  a 
stifling  smoke  hung  over  the  town,  from  which  issued  the  shrieks 
of  women  and  babes  and  the  defiant  yells  of  the  warriors.  The 
humane  Zaldivar  made  every  effort  to  save  the  women  and  children, 
at  great  risk  of  self ;  but  numbers  perished  beneath  the  falling  walls 
of  .neir  own  houses. 

This  fearful  storming  lasted  until  noon  of  January  24.  Now 
and  then  bands  of  warriors  made  sorties,  and  tried  to  cut  their  way 
through  the  Spanish  line.  Many  sprang  in  desperation  over  the 
cliff,  and  were  dashed  to  pieces  at  its  foot;  and  two  Indians  who 
made  that  incredible  leap  survived  it  as  miraculously  as  had  the 
four  Spaniards  in  the  earlier  massacre,  and  made  their  escape. 

At  last,  at  noon  of  the  third  day,  the  old  men  came  forth  to  sue 
for  mercy,  which  was  at  once  granted.  The  moment  they  sur- 
rendered, their  rebellion  was  forgotten  and  their  treachery  forgiven. 
There  was  no  need  for  further  punishment. 

We  should  certainly  think  not  if  Villagra's  statements 
are  to  be  believed.  Here  is  a  translation  of  his  story  of 
the  capitulation  of  the  Acomese,  as  given  in  Read's  His- 
tory : 

Returning  to  the   frightful  conflagration 

Whose    blaze,    vibrating    savagely,    forth    belched 

Its    lightning   bolts    with    sparks    and    cinder   mixed, 

Enveloping  the   lofty  houses  in 

Their  awe-inspiring  and  consuming  flames. 

See   here,   my  Lord,  high   roofs,   and  walls  and   lofts, 

And  dwellings  that  break  in  a  thousand  portions 

Open,  and  crumbling  swift   roll  on  the  ground 

In  sudden  crash,  and,  like  a  living  fire 

Deep  in  the  scorched  earth  do  bury  all 


148    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

The  wretched  dullness,  leaving  not  a  trace 

Of  anything  that's  not  devoured,  consumed. 

See,  too,  my  Lord,  the  many  corpses  that 

In  their  despair  fall  from  the  summit  of 

The  wall,  and  torn  by  rocks  lie  on  the  earth 

Outstretched  in  the   minutest  fragments  of 

Flesh  and  bone.     The  savages,  both  men 

And   women,  who   roast   with   their   little  ones, 

Most  piteously  lament  their  misery 

And  fate.     The  sergeant  to  compassion  moved 

Before  that  harvest  woeful,  grim  of  death, 

As  when  a  skilful  pilot's  wont  to  exert 

Himself  amid  the  storm  and  tempest  of 

The  Ocean,  leaping  to  and  fro,  and  for 

The  common  safety  strives,  commanding  crew 

And   passengers   with    anxious    shouts ;    and   then 

All  join  and  rush  in   fervid  haste  to  aid 

Themselves   and   save   the   slender   vessel   from 

The  wrath  of  angry  wave  and  raging  wind 

Which  toss  it  'mid  a  thousand  watery  mountains, 

So  he  (the  sergeant)   urging  Chumpo  and 

Other  barbarians  who  wished  for  peace, 

Assures   and   promises   upon   his    faith 

As  honoured  knight,  that  he  will  spare  the  lives 

Of  all  if  they  but  do  abstain  from  that 

Most  dreadful  butchery  and  cruel  strife 

Which  they  —  unhappy  wretches  —  called  upon 

Themselves.     No  sooner  had  the  poor  old  man's 

Ears  caught  the  words  of  the  chivalrous  youth 

Than,  clamouring  in  loud  wild  voices  with 

The  few  barbarians  attending  him, 

He  did  persuade  them  and  exhort  by  signs 

And  earnest  pleadings  of  a  father,  to 

Desist  and  not  to  sacrifice  themselves 

To  a  much  horrid   death ;    for  he  had   pledged 

His  knighted  word   to  spare  their   lives   and  give 

Them  noble  treatment  —  not  in  doubtful  terms, 

But  certainly,  without  suspicion  and 

Without  disguise,   and   free  from  vile   intent. 

As  after  lighting's  shock  has  passed,  we  see 

Our  neighbours  in  suspense,   with  death's   pale  hue 

Upon  their  cheeks,   their   throbbing  hearts   within 

Their  breasts  in  palpitation,  they  came  out 

Mistrustful   still,   to   see   and   ascertain 


Acoma,  the  City  of  the  Cliffs  149 

The   wreck   caused   by   the   fight   already    passed : 

In  similar  manner  many  others  in 

Dull,  timorous   solemn  pace  approached 

Quite  careful  not  to   step  upon   the  bloody 

Corpses  of  friends,  the  loyal  shield  of  those 

Grim  walls  that  with  their  blood  were  bathed  and  dyed. 

So,  too,  sad,  trembling,  and  afflicted,  hemmed 

In  on  both  sides  they  nearer  came  and  nearer 

Caressing  the  Castilian  band  and  all 

Their  kin  with  pallid  features,  yet  with  signs 

Of  cordial  pleasure   beaming  on   their   faces. 

On   seeing  them   reduced,   and   now   withdrawn 

From   that  fierce,   mortal   struggle   which  they  had 

Invited,  they  appeared  as  do  the  fields 

Of  wheat  that  nod  and  bend  before 

The  furious  blowing  of  the  mighty  winds, 

Whose  heavy  gusts   rush  fiercely  through  their  stalks 

And  crush  them  in  the  ground :     Ev'n  so 

Six  hundred  warriors,  conquered  and  disarmed, 

Surrendered,   and   within   the   town,   with   their 

Wives    and   their   children    prostrate,   gave   their   arms 

And  altogether  placed  themselves  without 

Condition  at  the  hands  and  mercy  of 

The  sergeant  in  most  quiet  stillness,  moved 

By  the  good  Chumpo,  who  had  promised  all 

Their   lives,   and  there   and   then  gave   it   to  them. 

And  I  doubt  that  we  could  without  his  help 

Have   taken   that   numancia   which,   though   now 

Lost  and  unhappy,  was  determined  to 

Rather  remain  deserted  and  unpeopled 

Than  ever  to  surrender  to  that  small  force. 

Thus  the  Acomese  were  brought  into  subjection. 
Their  pueblo  was  almost  entirely  destroyed  by  fire  and 
had  to  be  rebuilt,  eighty  of  their  girls  were  marched  away 
to  Santa  Fe,  and  Lummis  says  they  were  "  sent  to  be 
educated  by  the  nuns  in  Old  Mexico.'' 

There  seems  to  be  some  question  as  to  the  population 
of  Acoma  at  this  time.  Oriate  estimated  it  at  three  thou- 
sand and  as  only  six  hundred  were  said  to  survive  the 
siege,  twenty-four  hundred  must  have  been  slain  in  the 


150    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

conflict.  This  unquestionably  was  an  exaggeration,  for 
Benavides,  thirty  years  later,  figures  out  the  population 
at  two  thousand.  Of  this  latter  figure  Bandelier  states 
it  is  twice  as  many  as  the  rock  will  hold,  hence  we  may 
cut  the  figures  of  Onate  in  half,  and  even  then  the  slaugh- 
ter is  enough  to  satisfy  the  most  bloody  of  minds. 

And  all  for  what?  Simply  because  a  primitive  people 
had  slain  the  minions  of  a  foreign  prince  who  had  dared 
to  come  and  assert  sovereignty  over  the  land,  the  homes, 
the  hunting-fields  they  had  occupied  for  centuries.  In- 
stead of  our  siding  with  those  who  punished  them  so 
cruelly,  our  sympathy  the  rather  should  go  out  to  them, 
true  patriots  as  they  were,  shedding  their  blood  so  freely 
in  defense  of  their  homes  and  native  land. 

There  is  one  incident  said  to  have  occurred  during  this 
fierce  conflict,  that  must  not  be  overlooked.  Read  tells 
of  it  thus: 

The  act  of  surrendering  being  over,  the  Indians  inquired  after 
that  valiant  rider  with  the  gray  beard,  who,  on  a  brisk,  white  steed 
and  accompanied  by  a  handsome  queen,  was  helping  the  Spaniards. 
The  Spaniards  considered  that  a  miracle  had  been  performed,  saying 
that  the  rider  the  Indians  saw  must  have  been  Santiago  (St.  James), 
and  the  queen,  the  Virgin,  an  apparition  which  they  did  not  see. 

The  effect  of  the  victory  of  the  Spaniards  at  Acoma 
was  felt  throughout  the  whole  of  the  pueblo  region. 
With  Acoma  the  inaccessible,  defended  by  the  bravest  of 
the  brave,  brought  to  defeat,  what  hope  was  there  for  the 
others?  Better  meet  the  evil  condition,  and  submit  to 
the  yoke  of  the  invader.  This,  undoubtedly,  was  the 
reasoning  followed,  and  for  a  time  New  Mexico  had 
peace. 

Then,  strange  to  say,  fierce,  sullen,  recalcitrant  Acoma 
was  stormed  again,  but  this  time  not  by  warriors  with 
guns  and  swords,  but  by  a  cheerful,  sunny  Franciscan, 


Acoma,  the  City  of  the  Cliffs  151 

Fray  Juan  Ramirez,  who  walked  alone  to  Acoma  to  un- 
dertake the  task  of  christianizing  its  people.  He  was  not 
greeted  with  kindness.  Indeed,  the  Acomese  tell  a  story 
handed  down  to  them  that  the  good  father  was  thrown 
off  the  cliff,  and  that  by  the  miraculous  intervention  of 
the  saints  he  worshiped,  his  life  was  saved.  Anyhow  he 
succeeded  in  gaining  the  right  to  stay  with  them  and  in 
a  short  time  won  their  friendship.  For  twenty  years  he 
remained,  teaching  them  the  ways  of  the  new  religion, 
and  so  powerfully  did  he  influence  them,  they  built  a 
mission  church  under  his  direction.  This,  says  Hodge, 
"  was  dedicated  to  San  Esteban  (St.  Stephen)  and  stood 
just  to  the  north  of  the  present  remarkable  edifice,  but 
no  trace  of  it  now  remains  if  we  bar  some  carved  beams 
which  form  part  of  one  of  the  houses  of  the  old  north 
tier." 

But  this  peaceful  condition  was  not  to  last  for  long. 
The  Acomese  hated  the  Spaniards  as  a  whole  and  that 
their  desire  for  vengeance  was  but  smoldering  is  evident 
by  the  fact  that  they  joined  in  the  rebellion  of  1680  and 
slew  their  missionary,  Fray  Lucas  Maldonado.  Many 
a  time  as  I  have  strolled  about  the  mesa  top,  looking 
down  the  steep  cliffs,  and  into  the  deeply  eroded  clefts 
that  seam  the  walls,  my  mind  has  turned  to  this  period  of 
rebellion.  I  have  imagined  the  good  father,  suddenly 
awakened  out  of  his  sleep,  dragged  out  of  his  bed  and 
room  into  the  open  air,  under  a  sky  so  pure  and  blue  that 
it  seemed  as  if  no  evil  could  exist  under  its  pellucid  seren- 
ity, and  then,  horror  of  horrors,  a  blow  here,  a  thrust 
there  and  the  life  blood  of  the  good  man  trickled  in 
ruddy  streaks  over  the  very  pavement,  perhaps,  on  which 
I  now  walked.  And  where  and  how  was  he  buried? 
Did  they  cast  his  still  warm  body  off  the  cliff?  Did  the 
coyotes  rend  the  flesh  before  some  compassionate  soul 


152    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

stole  away  from  the  rest  and  scooped  a  hole  in  the  sand, 
and  reverently  placed  the  desecrated  and  broken  body 
into  its  last  earthly  tenement?  Desecrated,  broken,  de- 
filed, possibly;  yet,  if  one  tear  fell  upon  that  rigid  face, 
one  glimpse  of  love,  one  throb  of  sympathy,  it  was  a 
sanctified  grave. 

Oh,  blood  of  the  martyrs,  shed  the  world  over  for 
ideas,  how  much  of  it  has  been  spilled  needlessly,  aim- 
lessly, almost  foolishly,  because  men  have  not  known 
enough  to  be  loving  and  kind  to  their  brother  men  of 
different  races  and  civilizations  throughout  the  earth? 
I  believe  firmly  that  had  our  Indians  of  the  Southwest 
been  treated  by  the  Spanish  officials,  soldiers,  and  colo- 
nists with  proper  decency,  there  would  have  been  little 
rebellion  and  few  or  no  murders. 

And  yet  the  thoughts  intrude :  Has  a  conquering  race 
ever  shown  brotherly  kindness  to  the  race  it  has  con- 
quered? Has  any  people  a  right  to  its  own  home,  its 
own  mode  of  life,  its  own  religion,  without  the  inter- 
ference of  outsiders?  Until  the  great  European  war 
drew  the  American  people  into  its  seething  whirlpool, 
there  had  never  been  found  a  statesman  with  vision 
enough,  purity  of  heart  sufficient,  and  moral  courage  as- 
sertive enough  to  dare  to  defend  the  rights  of  all  people 
to  determine  the  course  of  their  own  lives. 

Lincoln  came  nearer  to  doing  it  than  had  any  one  prior 
to  his  time.  It  was  left  for  Woodrow  Wilson,  however, 
when  announcing  the  entry  of  the  United  States  into  the 
war  on  the  side  of  the  Allies,  boldly  to  enunciate  the  prin- 
ciple that,  in  future,  no  large  or  powerful  nation  should 
be  allowed  to  subjugate  a  smaller  or  weaker  one. 

The  Spaniards  held  to  no  such  frivolous  idea.  Might 
meant  right,  and,  anyhow,  what  rights,  possibly,  could  a 
lot  of  ignorant  savages  have?     It  was  against  this  arro- 


Acoma,  the  City  of  the  Cliffs  153 

gant  spirit  that  the  Acomese  and  other  Indians  of  New 
Mexico  arose. 

While  the  first  church  of  Acoma  was  dedicated  to  San 
Esteban  (St.  Stephen),  the  name  of  the  patron  saint  was 
changed  about  this  time  to  San  Pedro,  and  the  bell  in  the 
northeastern  tower  bears  the  inscription,  "  San  Pedro, 
1710."  But  the  original  name  was  afterwards  restored, 
and  a  quaint  wooden  figure  of  St.  Stephen  has  ever  since 
adorned  the  altar,  from  which  it  is  taken  and  heads  the 
great  procession  on  the  fiesta  day  of  the  Acomese,  St. 
Stephen's,  September  2. 

It  is  interesting  here  to  note  that  the  San  Esteban,  of 
Acoma,  is  not  Stephen  the  Martyr,  whose  apology  and 
death  are  recorded  in  Acts  vi  and  vii.  The  Acoma  St. 
Stephen  was  a  king  of  Hungary,  named  after  Stephen 
the  Martyr,  but  canonized  by  Pope  Benedict  IX,  because 
of  his  zeal  in  converting  the  Magyars,  who  really  were 
Tartars  from  the  Caspian  Sea  region,  and  had  invaded 
and  conquered  Hungary  —  from  paganism  to  Christi- 
anity. There  was  little  of  sentiment  in  his  methods.  He 
overthrew  all  the  old  altars  and  ruthlessly  destroyed  all 
the  old  heroic  and  mythologic  poems,  and  put  to  death 
by  drowning  every  Magyar  found  worshiping  under  the 
sacred  oaks,  by  fountains,  or  before  lichened  rocks,  as 
their  ancient  method  required. 

Of  the  mission  church  of  San  Esteban  much  might  be 
written.  In  the  rebellion  of  1680  the  first  church  was 
destroyed  —  razed  to  the  very  rock  upon  which  it  stood. 
All  the  furniture,  vestments  and  paraphernalia  were 
burned,  and  with  them  the  first  record  of  the  mission's 
history.     How  priceless  would  they  be  to  us  to-day ! 

When  de  Vargas  came  on  his  first  triumphal  march  the 
Acomese  could  scarce  believe  they  were  to  be  pardoned 
so  easily  for  their  misdoings.     In    1696,   they   rebelled 


154    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

again,  keeping  the  governor  at  bay  when  he  came  to  pun- 
ish them,  although  he  succeeded  in  capturing  five  of  their 
number,  four  of  whom  were  shot.  The  sternly  repres- 
sive measures  of  the  governor  soon  brought  the  other 
pueblos  to  subjection  and  the  Acomese,  seeing  the  heavy 
hand  of  punishment  fall  upon  their  brothers,  decided  that 
it  would  be  wise  to  cease  their  armed  opposition,  hence 
they  sued  for  peace,  and,  in  due  time,  a  new  friar  was 
sent  to  them.  Then  they  built  the  existent  remarkable 
church,  with  its  massive  walls,  double  bell  towers,  and 
outbuildings  that  ever  since  has  been  the  delight  of  all 
who  have  seen  it. 

Its  walls  are  sixty  feet  high  and  ten  feet  thick,  and 
the  timbers  upon  which  the  roof  rests  are  fourteen  inches 
square  and  forty  feet  long.  The  Indians  say  they  were 
cut  on  Black  Mesa,  over  twenty  miles  away,  and  carried 
or  dragged  by  sheer  human  muscle  to  their  present  loca- 
tion. The  building,  with  its  house  for  the  padres  and 
rooms  for  the  neophytes,  etc.,  says  Lummis,  "  covers 
more  ground  than  any  modern  cathedral  in  the  United 
States."  It  was  the  building  that  furnished  the  chief 
motif  for  the  unique  and  fascinating  New  Mexican 
building  at  the  San  Diego  Exposition  of  191 5-6.  And 
while  features  of  other  mission  structures  have  been  in- 
troduced, it  was  the  main  "  inspiration  "  of  the  splendid 
"  Cathedral  of  the  Desert,"  the  fine  Art  Museum,  that 
to-day  is  the  modern  glory  of  the  City  of  Santa  Fe. 

While  undoubtedly  the  pieces  of  stone  used  in  its  con- 
struction were  picked  up  on  the  mesa  top,  it  is  equally 
certain  that  every  pound  of  adobe,  of  which  perhaps  more 
was  used  than  of  stone,  was  carried  up  from  the  valley 
beneath.  Up  the  precipitous  stone  ladders  in  the  clefts 
of  the  cliff,  patient  women  bore  blankets  full  of  the  heavy 
earth,  and  when  the  building  of  the  church  was  done  they 


Acoma,  the  City  of  the  Cliffs  155 

carried  up  as  much  more  to  fill  up  the  great  "  box  "  that 
had  been  made  with  stone  walls,  and  that  was  to  act  as  a 
Campo  Santo  for  those  Acomese  who  afterwards  "  died 
in  the  Lord."  No  wonder  the  toe-holes  of  the  rocky 
wall  trails  are  worn  down  several  inches  by  the  constant 
imprint  of  the  moccasined  feet. 

Some  ten  or  a  dozen  years  ago  the  roof  leaked  and 
the  towers  were  so  rounded  by  the  weather  that  something 
had  to  be  done.  There  was  no  floor  in  the  church,  and 
as  the  rain  came  through  by  the  bucketful  during  a  storm, 
the  sacristan  hit  upon  the  plan  of  cutting  a  small  drainage 
trench  down  the  center  of  the  church.  Later  a  board 
floor  was  put  in,  the  decaying  timbers  of  the  roof  were 
replaced  with  new  ones,  a  new  covering  of  earth  put  over 
them,  and  the  towers  built  up  and  squared.  This  latter 
change  may  have  been  necessary  from  the  preservation 
standpoint,  but  it  certainly  has  taken  away  some  of  the 
peculiar  charm  of  the  old,  weather-rounded  towers. 

Here  upon  the  walls,  by  the  altar,  are  two  or  three 
paintings.  Ordinarily  one  might  pass  them  by,  but  when 
he  is  informed  that  one  of  them,  that  of  San  Jose  (St. 
Joseph)  is,  perhaps,  the  same  painting  that  was  presented 
to  the  church  by  Charles  II  of  Spain,  and  that  it  certainly 
and  positively  is  a  picture  that  not  only  almost  provoked 
a  civil  war  but  was  the  object  of  a  sensational  suit  in  the 
courts  of  New  Mexico,  upon  which  decisions  were  ren- 
dered by  the  superior  and  supreme  judges  of  the  Terri- 
tory, he  will  turn  and  take  more  than  a  cursory  glance 
at  it.  Whether  it  is  an  "  old  master  "  or  not  I  do  not 
know  —  nor  does  any  one  else.  It  is  so  dim  and  faded 
and  weather-worn  that  no  one,  however  expert,  can 
decide. 

It  is  well  known  how  objects  as  strange  as  they  are 
various  will,  for  some  reason  or  none,  become  the  sub- 


156    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

ject  of  an  aboriginal  people's  reverence,  superstition,  or 
regard.  Even  while  the  Acomese  hated  the  Spanish  mis- 
sionaries they  gradually  began  to  attach  importance  to 
this  picture.  This  can  well  be  understood  when  we  recall 
how  the  old  padres  reverenced  the  husband  of  the  Virgin 
Mother,  and  doubtless  incited  the  Acomese  to  pray  to 
him  for  all  good  and  to  avert  from  them  all  evil.  Pos- 
sibly the  serene  quiet  face  of  the  "  Father  of  God,"  gaz- 
ing steadily,  persistently,  never-changing,  out  of  his  can- 
vas upon  them  affected  their  imagination.  Slowly  impor- 
tance changed  to  regard,  and  regard  to  reverence,  and  — 
when  and  where  does  superstition  come  in?  and  what 
is  superstition  anyhow?  Certain  it  is  that  "  the  venera- 
tion for  the  painting  grew  stronger  and  more  clear,  while 
oil  and  canvas  were  growing  dim  and  moldy."  While 
they  prayed  and  followed  the  new  way  of  the  padre, 
things  seemed  to  go  well  with  them  and  they  prospered 
in  all  things,  which  he,  of  course,  constantly  and  faith- 
fully attributed  to  the  good  influences  of  the  saint. 

Perhaps  the  Navaho  and  the  Apache  were  less  warlike 
for  a  generation  or  so ;  perhaps  crops  were  better  than 
they  had  been ;  perhaps  flocks  and  herds  increased ;  per- 
haps a  pestilence  that  had  devastated  Zuni  or  the  far- 
away peoples  of  the  province  of  Tusayan  had  not  reached 
them.  Anyhow,  as  generation  after  generation  passed 
away,  the  veneration  for  the  picture  grew,  until  in  the 
minds  of  young  and  old  alike  it  was  recognized  as  "  good 
medicine."  The  faith  people  have  in  signs  and  symbols, 
in  objects  and  methods  of  worship,  is  both  touching  and 
pathetic  and  never  more  so  than  in  the  perfect  faith  of 
the  people  of  Acoma  in  their  picture  of  San  Jose. 

In  the  meantime  the  leaven  of  their  faith  was  reaching 
the  people  of  Laguna,  and  the  elements  and  circum- 
stances were  helping.     Whatever  one  family  asserts  to 


Acoma,  the  City  of  the  Cliffs  157 

another  is  the  secret  of  the  former's  good  luck  or  for- 
tune, is  bound  to  become  an  object  of  interest  to  those 
who  do  not  enjoy  that  luck.  That  the  Acomese  were  en- 
joying good  luck  was  apparent  to  everybody,  and  that  the 
Lagunas  were  not  was  equally  apparent.  The  flocks  and 
herds  at  Laguna  did  not  increase :  their  crops  were  not 
good ;  their  irrigating  ditches  broke,  and  the  water-sup- 
ply ran  short;  a  terrible  epidemic  of  small-pox  left  sev- 
eral houses  childless  and  took  away  quite  a  number  of 
husbands,  fathers  and  lovers ;  and  the  fierce  Navahos 
came  and  robbed  them  of  sheep  and  their  meager  field 
store. 

What  was  the  reason  ? 

The  wise  Gray-gowns  (the  Franciscan  missionaries) 
long  ago  had  told  the  people  of  Laguna  that  San  Jose 
would  bring  them  good  fortune  (for  their  Mission  was 
dedicated  to  San  Jose),  but  they  had  no  picture  and  they 
had  not  paid  much  heed  to  the  Gray-gowns  anyhow.  But 
here  were  the  Acomese,  who  were  their  Indian  kinsfolk : 
they  were  not  likely  to  give  San  Jose  credit  for  anything 
that  did  not  absolutely  belong  to  him.  It  must  be  San 
Jose! 

As  soon  as  this  conclusion  was  reached  it  was  natural 
for  them  to  long  for  a  San  Jose  to  bring  them  good  for- 
tune. 

A  solemn  conclave  of  the  principales  and  officers  of 
Laguna  was  called,  and  it  was  finally  decided  that  they 
should  go,  in  all  ceremony,  and  humbly  ask  their  brothers 
at  Acoma  to  lend  them  their  source  of  good  fortune.  A 
specially  sacred  time  was  coming,  according  to  the  Gray- 
gowns'  teaching,  and  if  they  obeyed  and  paid  due  atten- 
tion to  San  Jose  the  good  they  needed  would  assuredly 
come  to  them. 

They  presented  their  petition.     Their  Acoma  brothers 


158    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

duly  considered  it  and  finally  consented  to  loan  San  Jose, 
on  the  explicit  pledge  that  at  the  end  of  a  month  he  should 
be  returned. 

How  happy  the  Lagunas  were  as  they  bore  the  magic 
picture  of  the  sainted  "  Father  of  Jesus  "  down  the  steep 
trail  and  over  the  sandy  miles  to  their  own  rudely  deco- 
rated church.  Two  of  them  carried  it,  and  as  they  did 
so  were  guarded  more  carefully  than  they  ever  guarded 
themselves  or  their  children.  The  whole  town  came  out 
to  meet  them.  A  procession  of  joyous,  happy,  hopeful 
men,  women  and  children  followed  the  carriers  and 
watched  breathlessly  until  the  picture  was  duly  hung  up 
in  the  little  church. 

Then  day  by  day  everybody  paid  his,  her,  devotions  to 
the  pictured  saint.  Everybody  was  "  good."  During 
"  Holy  week  "  the  canvas  was  brought  out  and  carried 
through  the  pueblo  at  the  head  of  the  procession  and  all 
paid  San  Jose  due  honour  and  reverence. 

Now,  strange  to  say, —  or  is  it  not  strange, —  the 
"  luck  "  of  the  Lagunas  changed  from  that  day.  Things 
began  to  boom  that  had  hitherto  languished.  Sick  chil- 
dren became  well ;  the  flocks  lost  their  diseases ;  lean, 
gaunt  cattle  and  sheep  began  to  gain  flesh ;  and  crops  no 
longer  looked  as  if  they  would  not  repay  the  labour  of 
planting. 

These  facts,  instead  of  filling  the  hearts  of  the  La- 
gunas with  thankfulness,  seemed  to  have  had  the  oppo- 
site effect.  Or  was  it  that  they  were  afraid  their  good 
fortune  would  cease  if  the  magical  picture  were  returned? 
When  the  month  was  up  the  Acomese  waited  for  the  re- 
turn of  San  Jose  and  he  did  not  come.  With  a  trifle  of 
anxiety  they  sent  messengers  to  enquire  the  reason,  and 
their  astonishment,  indignation  and  rage  knew  no  bounds 
when  these  returned   with   the   reply   that  the  Lagunas 


Acoma,  the  City  of  the  Cliffs         159 

refused  to  give  up  the  picture  unless  it  were  taken  by 
force.  The  young  men  were  for  going  down  and  seizing 
it,  but  some  of  the  wiser,  older,  calmer  heads  suggested 
that  the  priest  first  of  all  be  consulted.  He  was  Fray 
Mariano  de  Jesus  Lopez,  a  Franciscan,  and  a  worthy  suc- 
cessor to  the  men  who  had  founded  the  missions,  and  he 
called  upon  the  principalcs  of  both  Laguna  and  Acoma  to 
appear  before  him  and  explain  the  cause  of  the  difficulty, 
bringing  the  picture  with  them. 

When  all  were  assembled,  prayers  were  offered,  calling 
upon  God  to  see  that  justice  was  done,  and  mass  was 
then  held,  so  that  all  might  enter  into  the  discussion  with 
due  solemnity.  It  was  finally  decided  that  they  should 
draw  lots  for  the  picture  —  it  was  the  old  biblical  way  — 
and  God,  not  chance,  would  guide  the  result.  Twelve 
ballots  were  prepared,  eleven  blank  and  one  marked  with 
a  rude  sketch  of  the  saint.  Two  little  girls  were  ap- 
pointed to  draw  the  ballots  from  an  olla  into  which  they 
were  placed  and  shaken  up.  On  the  fifth  ballot  the 
Acoma  girl  drew  out  the  pictured  ballot,  and  "  God  has 
decided  in  favour  of  Acoma,"  declared  Fray  Mariano. 

Never  was  the  village  happier  than  was  Acoma  that 
night  when  San  Jose  was  restored  to  his  former  place  on 
the  wall  of  the  church.  Everybody  hugged  everybody 
else,  and  rejoicing  filled  each  heart.  But  the  Lagunas 
scowlingly  climbed  down  the  rocky  trails  as  though  they 
were  on  their  way  home. 

In  the  morning  some  of  the  more  devout  Acomese  went 
to  the  church  a  little  earlier  than  usual,  but,  as  they  ap- 
proached the  altar  in  the  dim  morning  light,  they  speedily 
noticed  that  something  was  wrong.  The  first  one  who 
saw,  scarcely  dared  breathe  it  to  the  next,  and  when  they 
did  speak  it  was  in  an  awed  whisper :  "  Why,  He  has 
gone !  "     Hurriedly  the  news  was  given  to  the  governor 


160     New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

idles  and  the  padre  and  not  one  of  them 
could  scarce  believe  his  ears.  At  las:  a  careful  examina- 
tion was  made  and  then  tell-tale  tracks  told  the  story. 
The  Lagunas  stealthily  had  come  up  the  steej  st  oe  stair- 
c  ise  in  the  dead  of  the  night,  and  knowing  the  unsus- 
-  :haracter  fthe  ;  mese,  had  entered  the  church. 
wn  the  picture  and  triumphantly,  :  g  -  entry, 
borne  it  back  to  Laguna. 

Others  tell  the  story  a  little  differently.     They  claim 
:  an  armed  ban  :.     E  I  agunas,  having  pledged  them- 
selves not!     gc  home  with   ul  the  picture,  stealthily  re- 
se   w     the   -  .      stan  while  he  was  in  bed.  gagged 
n§  the  chui  from  him,  went  to  the 

sacred  building   .  ssessed  themselves    f  the  picture. 

Anyh  is  g         and  now  the  gr«         lesti   n  was, 

"  What  shall  we  d    f         War  loomed  in  sigh: !     The  theft 
was  an  open  insult  to  the  wh  the  people,  and  doubt- 

less had  not  Fray  Lopez  been  there  blood  would  ' 
beer.  sh<  and  many  lives  si  ere  the  dispute  was  set- 
He,  however,  had  friends  .  San  Mateo  to  whom 
,  could  appeal  for  wisdom.  These  in  turn  knew  law- 
yers al  Santa  Fe.  They  wool  lace  the  matter  before 
tin    c   arts  —the    American  dieting   disputes 

-.':  Eor  ordinary  p*     Ic  I    settle. 
Hence  so  the  District  Court  of  the 

rid  Judicial  District     ;  New  Mexico,  asking  mat  a 
receiver  be  ..  t  me  picture     :   San       se,  and 

thai  the    wnershin  leclan  L     The  Lagunas 

ft  an  American  lawyer  who  made  the  usual  formal 
.  but  setting  forth  things  thai  startled  the    Vcomas. 
ictnn     riginalry  belonge  I  I    mem, 
that  by  tradil  is  surely  theirs,  that  the  . 

as  •       agreed  to  by  them,  and  thai  they  had 
simply  se  taken  home  their  own  property. 


Acoma,  the  City  of  the  Cliffs         161 

The  Hon.  Kirby  Benedict,  sitting  as  chancellor,  had 
the  honour  of  settling  this  remarkable  case.  He  heard 
the  evidence  and  decided  in  favour  of  Acoma.  Laguna 
appealed  to  the  Supreme  Court,  which  also  made  a  thor- 
ough, and  for  it,  rather  extra  judicial  investigation,  and 
then,  in  1857,  affirmed  the  original  decision.  Part  of 
the  Supreme  Court's  decision  reads  as  follows : 

The  history  of  this  painting,  its  obscure  origin,  its  age,  and 
the  fierce  contest  which  these  two  Indian  pueblos  have  carried  on, 
bespeak  the  inappreciable  value  which  is  placed  upon  it.  The  in- 
trinsic value  of  the  oil,  paint,  and  cloth  of  which  San  Jose  is  rep- 
resented to  the  senses,  it  has  been  admitted  in  argument,  probably 
would  not  exceed  twenty-five  cents;  but  this  seemingly  worthless 
painting  has  well-nigh  cost  these  two  pueblos  a  bloody  and  cruel 
struggle,  and  had  it  not  been  for  weakness  on  the  part  of  one  of 
the  pueblos,  its  history  might  have  been  written  in  blood. 

As  soon  as  the  news  of  the  decision  reached  Acoma  a 
band  of  happy  and  eager  men  started  to  Laguna  for  the 
picture.  To  their  amazement,  when  about  half  way,  they 
found  San  Jose,  with  his  face  turned  homeward,  and  to 
this  day  the  simple-hearted  Acomese,  provided  they  can 
be  induced  to  tell  you  the  foregoing  story,  will  assure 
you  that  the  saint,  knowing  of  the  decision  by  the  Su- 
preme Court,  had  started  on  his  way  home,  but,  growing 
weary,  had  waited  by  the  tree  to  rest  himself,  when  found 
by  his  happy  people  going  to  fetch  him  home. 

This  is  the  picture  that,  tattered  and  faded,  now  stands 
over  the  altar,  one  of  the  most  treasured  of  all  the  pos- 
sessions of  the  simple  people  who  worship  there. 

From  this  story  it  might  be  implied  that  the  Acomese 
are  devout  Catholics,  and  I  doubt  not  there  be  those  who 
will  assert  that  they  are.  Yet  as  one  watches  many  of 
their  ceremonies  and  familiarizes  himself  with  their  de- 
tails, he  finds  that,  even  in  their  celebration  of  their  Saint's 
days,  they  still  retain  many  of  their  original  aboriginal 


162    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

and  heathen  customs.  Indeed  it  appears  to  me  it  would 
be  far  more  exact  to  say  that  the  Acomese  have  allowed 
Catholic  ceremonial  to  be  grafted  upon  their  ancient  cus- 
toms, so  that,  at  this  day,  they  are  a  peculiar  combination. 

In  illustration  of  this  let  me  give  a  fairly  detailed  ac- 
count of  one  Saint's  day  fiesta,  of  which  I  have  seen 
many,  both  at  Acoma  and  at  other  New  Mexican  pueblos. 

The  fiesta  of  the  Indian  is  a  peculiar  mixture.  The 
word,  of  course,  is  Spanish,  and  means  a  festival.  Yet 
it  must  not  be  assumed,  therefore,  that  the  Indians  knew 
nothing  of  festivals  before  the  coming  of  the  Spaniards. 
They  were  full  of  fiestas  —  only  to  them  they  were  re- 
ligious ceremonials,  with  an  occasional  dash  of  clownish 
fun.  In  their  handling  of  aboriginal  peoples  the  Catholic 
church  learned  a  wonderful  amount  of  worldly  wisdom. 
They  soon  discovered  that  to  attempt  to  prohibit  the  In- 
dian ceremonials  was  to  bring  down  on  them  the  fiercest 
wrath  of  the  medicine  men.  So  they  worked  in  two 
ways.  One  was  to  introduce  new  ceremonies,  dramatic 
plays,  etc.,  which  immediately  engaged  the  interest  of  the 
Indians,  for  any  kind  of  a  "  show  "  attracts  them  as  it 
does  children.  The  other  was  to  take  the  heathen  cere- 
monial, even  though  to  the  Indian  it  implied  Sun-worship, 
prayers  and  invocations  to  a  hundred  and  one  of  their 
Katchinas  —  or  lesser  divinities  —  and  graft  upon  it  a 
Christian  significance.  In  some  cases  it  was  remodeled 
—  as  Belasco  would  remodel  a  play  —  new  parts  being 
introduced,  old  ones  changed,  or  ostensibly  given  a  new 
significance. 

September  the  second  is  the  day  of  St.  Stephen, 
Acoma's  patron  saint.  The  priest  in  charge  of  the  "  par- 
ish "  at  that  time  of  which  I  write  was  the  Reverend 
George  Juillard,  a  Frenchman  of  high  culture  and  great 
ability.     He  spoke  several  modern  languages  fluently  and 


Acoma,  the  City  of  the  Cliffs  163 

was  more  familiar  with  the  modern  poets  of  England,  ap- 
preciatively quoting  them,  than  most  well-read  Ameri- 
cans. He  had  arranged  to  be  present  at  Acoma  on  this 
great  feast  day,  and  cordially  had  invited  me  to  go  with 
him.  We  drove  out  from  Laguna,  enjoying  the  scenery 
on  the  way,  and  arriving  at  the  foot  of  the  mesa  in  the 
early  afternoon.  Our  approach  evidently  had  been 
heralded,  for,  waiting  for  us  at  the  foot  of  the  trail  was 
a  group  of  men,  youths  and  children,  ready  and  anxious 
to  take  our  bedding,  food  supplies,  camera  outfit  and  our 
personal  belongings  to  the  house  apportioned  to  us  for  our 
visit. 

The  following  morning  we  were  to  witness  a  dramatic 
representation  of  the  coming  of  St.  James  to  Spain. 
Here  was  an  out-door  drama,  taught  to  the  Acomese  by 
some  long-dead  Spanish  friar,  handed  down  to  this  day, 
and  now  to  be  performed  in  our  honour. 

Long  before  we  had  breakfast  we  could  feel  that  some- 
thing exciting  was  in  the  air.  The  men  were  decked  in 
their  finest  costumes,  and  the  women  were  still  arraying 
themselves  in  their  most  gaudy  apparel.  Bands  of  horses 
had  been  clattering  up  and  down  the  naturally  stone- 
paved  streets  for  hours  and  the  noise  had  awakened  us 
in  the  early  morning.  Soon  after  breakfast  we  were  all 
drawn,  as  by  a  magnet,  to  one  spot  on  the  mesa  top.  It 
was  near  the  head  of  the  trail  which  had  been  built  up 
by  the  drifting  sands  on  the  northeast  face  of  the  cliff. 
Every  eye  that  knew  what  to  expect  was  gazing  off  in 
the  far-away  distance  where  pinions  and  junipers  hid  the 
sandy  soil.  Soon  two  young  men  on  fiery  broncos  came 
dashing  up  as  if  they  were  messengers  of  importance. 
Riding  as  far  as  it  was  possible  up  the  steep  trail,  and 
greeted  on  every  hand  by  buzzing  tongues,  they  came  to 
the  governor  and  principalcs  who  awaited  them  in  a  dig- 


164    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

nified  group  near  the  head  of  the  trail.  There  they  an- 
nounced the  fact  that  Saint  James  was  on  his  way  to 
Acoma  and  would  soon  arrive.  Though  no  public  an- 
nouncement of  what  the  messengers  had  said  was  made, 
everybody  seemed  to  understand  and  every  gaze  became 
more  fixed  and  insistent  than  before.  Soon  the  quaintest 
and  queerest  little  figure  that  was  ever  seen  appeared 
among  the  trees  on  the  plain,  surrounded  by  a  hundred 
horsemen,  not  riding  sedately  and  soberly,  but  all  in  a 
hurry  of  bustle  and  excitement.  Single  horsemen  and 
groups  darted  off,  like  the  wind,  in  every  direction  on 
apparently  aimless  errands  and  came  back  with  equally 
aimless  speed.  They  were  messengers  sent  out  by  the 
Saint  to  inform  the  people  along  the  way  of  his  arrival. 
For  that  comical  little  figure,  which,  at  first,  we  could 
make  nothing  of,  at  last  came  near  enough  for  us  clearly 
to  see  what  it  was.  It  was  a  man  riding  some  kind  of 
a  figure  draped  in  white  with  a  small  horse's  head,  neck, 
mane,  back,  and  tail  attached  to  him,  which  he  made  to 
prance  and  cavort  around  in  a  series  of  fantastic  move- 
ments that  were  as  interesting  as  the  movements  of  the 
great  Chinese  dragon  of  San  Francisco.  This  was  Santi- 
ago —  St.  James  —  himself. 

When  the  foot  of  the  sand  trail  was  reached,  the 
couriers  of  Saint  James  dismounted  from  their  horses, 
which  they  left  there  in  charge  of  one  of  their  number, 
and  then,  solemnly  and  with  reverence,  formed  as  a  body- 
guard around  the  peculiar  figure  which  continued  his 
prancings  and  curvetings,  and  accompanied  him  up  the 
trail  to  the  mesa  top.  Here  he  was  received  with  the 
greatest  respect  and  marks  of  veneration  by  the  governor 
and  the  other  town  officials,  and  with  deep  and  earnest, 
but  nevertheless  hearty  cordiality,  by  the  people.  After 
a  few  minutes  spent  in  exchange  of  salutations,  the  whole 


Acoma,  the  City  of  the  Cliffs         165 

party  wended  its  way  toward  the  church.  Here  mass 
was  said  by  Father  Juillard,  followed  by  an  address  in 
which  he  told  the  story  of  St.  James's  coming  to  Spain, 
the  great  blessing  it  had  been  to  that  country,  and  how, 
through  the  priests,  these  same  blessings  were  to  be  be- 
stowed upon  the  Acomese. 

While  the  morning  proceedings  had  been  going  on  a 
small  Kisi,  or  bower,  had  been  built  of  poles  covered  with 
cottonwood,  pinion,  quaken  aspen,  and  juniper  branches, 
on  the  main  street.  We  were  soon  to  see  what  this  was 
for. 

The  service  ended,  a  procession  was  formed.  First 
came  the  mayor-domo,  or  director  of  proceedings, —  a 
stalwart  Mexican  dressed  in  cowboy  fashion,  with  wide- 
spreading  sombrero  on  his  head  and  jingling  spurs  on  his 
heels,  and  with  a  heavy  blacksnake  whip  in  his  hands. 
He  was  followed  by  St.  James,  riding  his  peculiar  little 
sham  horse,  then  another  Mexican,  dressed  almost  like 
the  other,  carrying  an  accordeon,  which  he  wielded  with 
considerable  earnestness  and  vigour.  Next  came  an  In- 
dian bearing  the  processional  cross,  then  the  governor 
and  his  officers,  followed  by  the  priest  in  his  robes  of 
office.  Behind  him,  seated  in  a  cabinet  evidently  made 
for  the  purpose  and  born  aloft  over  the  heads  of  the 
bearers,  was  the  wooden  figure  of  Saint  Stephen  taken 
down  from  its  place  on  the  altar.  Over  the  figure  of 
the  saint  a  cloth  canopy  was  held,  the  four  corners  of 
which  were  supported  by  staffs  in  the  hands  of  four  In- 
dian men.  Then  came  the  band  of  singers  and  the  whole 
of  the  population,  men,  women  and  children.  This  pro- 
cession solemnly  wended  its  way  up  and  down  every 
street  of  the  pueblo. 

In  order  to  obtain  different  photographs  of  the  pro- 
cession I  hurried  ahead  and  caught  it  at  several  points. 


166    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

We  were  all  much  amused;  not  only  by  the  antics  of 
the  "  Saint  "  and  his  "  hobby-horse,"  but  more  particu- 
larly by  the  Mexican  musician  who,  every  now  and  again, 
struck  up  some  wildly  hilarious  or  popular  air  or  dance- 
tune  which  shortly  before  had  been  ground  out  from 
every  hand-organ  and  mechanical-piano  on  the  streets  of 
our  eastern  cities.  To  us  the  effect  seemed  funny  and 
incongruous  in  the  highest,  but  the  Mexicans  and  Indians 
heard  in  it  nothing  strange  or  peculiar  and  received  the 
suggestive  strains  of  the  dance-tune  with  as  much  solemn- 
ity as  if  it  had  been  the  staidest  hymn-tune  ever  written. 

As  soon  as  the  procession  reached  the  kisi  the  figure  of 
St.  Stephen  solemnly  was  put  in  position  at  the  head  of  an 
extemporized  altar,  while  the  governor  and  principales 
sat  on  benches  on  each  side  of  the  bower,  with  two  armed 
sentinels  outside.  These  formed  the  guard  of  honour  for 
the  sacred  figure  and  also  gave  official  sanction  and  ap- 
proval to  the  fiesta. 

During  the  rest  of  the  morning  all  the  devout  members 
of  the  tribe,  men  and  women,  came  to  pray  at  the  little 
shrine,  each  one  bringing  some  gift-offering  of  bread, 
baked-meat,  clothing,  pottery,  corn,  melons,  jewelry,  or 
other  article,  all  of  which  were  deposited  around  the  foot 
of  the  altar  and  left  there.  In  the  meantime  Santiago 
must  have  retired  to  refresh  himself.  Anyhow,  he  dis- 
appeared for  a  time,  after  which  he  returned  at  intervals 
always  accompanied  by  the  Mexican  mayor-domo  with 
the  heavy  rawhide  whip. 

Soon  after  the  noon  hour  the  dances  began,  and  it  re- 
quired no  explanation  to  see  that  these  were  a  remnant 
of  the  old  heathen  part  of  the  ceremonies  upon  which  the 
civilized  and  Christian  part  had  been  grafted.  The  head- 
dresses of  the  women  clearly  symbolized  the  old  time 
Acoma  worship  of  the  sun.     They  also  showed  other 


Acoma,  the  City  of  the  Cliffs  167 

symbols  as  of  the  clouds,  falling  rain,  growing  corn,  etc. 
Some  of  the  songs  that  accompanied  the  dances  were  an- 
cient songs  of  thanksgiving  to  Those  Above  for  all  the 
good  things  the  pueblo  had  received  throughout  the  year, 
and  their  dances  were  clearly  prayers  for  rain. 

The  men  wore  a  kilt,  or  apron,  reaching  from  the  loin 
to  their  knees,  embroidered  and  fringed  garters  and 
moccasins.  Dependent  from  the  loins  at  the  back  was 
the  skin  of  the  silver  gray  fox,  and  around  both  arms 
above  the  elbow  were  tied  twigs  of  juniper  or  pine.  In 
the  left  hand  more  twigs  were  held,  while  in  the  right 
was  the  whitewashed  gourd-rattle  used  in  all  ceremonial 
dances.  Around  each  forehead  was  the  inevitable  banda 
or  handkerchief,  and  nearly  all  wore  a  shell  and  turquoise 
necklace.  Their  bodies  and  legs  were  nude,  painted  with 
oxide  of  iron.  The  women,  on  the  other  hand,  were  be- 
decked with  all  the  gorgeous  finery  they  could  muster. 
Jotsitz  (robe),  girdle,  moccasins,  leggings,  necklaces,  etc., 
that  were  too  good  for  common  use,  or  were  especially 
made  for  this  great  occasion,  were  donned,  and  in  addi- 
tion, the  peculiar  symbolic  head-dress  made  of  board  or 
raw-hide  which  I  have  already  described.  To  and  fro 
they  danced,  the  men  two  together,  giving  the  singular 
hippety-hop  movement  peculiar  to  Indian  dances,  and 
shaking  their  rattles,  the  women,  likewise  in  twos,  fol- 
lowing in  alternate  order,  gently  waving  bunches  of  wild 
flowers,  and  shuffling  forward  with  their  feet  as  the  men 
hopped.  On  the  other  side  of  the  street  stood  the  tombes 
—  drums  —  and  the  chorus,  the  leader  occasionally  mak- 
ing gestures,  all  of  which  were  imitated  by  the  singers, 
expressive  of  their  thankfulness  to  "  Those  Above." 

The  dancing  was  done  in  relays,  as  it  is  no  easy  thing 
to  keep  up  the  strenuous  and  vigorous  stepping  of  the 
Indian  dances  in  the  broiling  hot  sun  for  long  at  a  time. 


168    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

Only  those  who  have  tried  the  peculiar  step  of  these 
dances  know  what  hard  work  it  is  and  how  difficult.  The 
time  is  kept  by  a  statuesque  old  man  whose  wrinkled  face 
shows  that  he  has  participated  in  these  festivals  for  many 
generations.  The  tombe  is  a  wonderful  old  instrument, 
made  perhaps  six  or  seven  centuries  ago,  by  hollowing 
out  a  section  of  the  solid  trunk  of  a  tree  with  the  rude 
flint  knife  of  the  ancients.  The  two  ends  were  then  cov- 
ered with  green  rawhide  on  which  some  of  the  hair  was 
still  allowed  to  remain,  which  was  then  laced  together 
with  green  rawhide  thongs.  When  these  became  dry  they 
pulled  the  two  drum-heads  as  taut  as  if  they  were  stretched 
by  the  most  approved  method  of  modern  instrument 
makers. 

Turn,  turn,  turn,  beat  the  drums,  all  in  perfect  time. 
All  together,  as  if  they  were  controlled  by  machinery, 
each  man-dancer  raised  his  right  foot  with  a  quick  jerk 
to  the  height  of  eight  or  ten  inches  above  the  ground. 
The  next  moment,  but  all  in  time,  he  gives  a  tiny  hitch 
forward  or  hop  with  his  left  foot,  while  the  right  foot 
is  suspended  in  the  air.  Then,  bringing  the  right  foot 
down,  he  lifts  his  left  foot  with  the  same  quick  jerk, 
following  the  movement  with  the  tiny  hop  of  the  right 
foot.  It  is  this  little  and  almost  imperceptible  hop,  fol- 
lowing the  main  step,  that  gives  the  peculiar  character 
to  the  Indian's  dances.  As  the  afternoon  progressed  and 
the  fervour  of  the  dancers  increased,  the  step  became 
higher  and  more  vigorous  and  the  little  hitch  of  the  other 
foot  more  marked.  To  dance  such  dances  the  Indians 
must  need  be  athletes,  as  no  others  could  possibly  endure 
the  physical  labour  for  any  length  of  time. 

The  chorus  was  particularly  interesting.  The  leaders 
were  young  men  dressed  in  snow-white  shirts,  and  many 
of  them  wore  regular  sombrero  hats  of  civilized  make. 


Acoma,  the  City  of  the  Cliffs  160 

A  few  had  on  coloured  calico  shirts  and  the  usual  Indian 
headband.  Their  singing  was  in  perfect  time  and  their 
voices  were  rich,  resonant,  strong  and  pleasing,  entirely 
different  from  the  nasal,  high-pitched,  falsetto  screeching 
often  indulged  in  by  the  Navahos  and  Mexicans.  While 
most  of  the  songs  were  of  their  own  peculiar  type  there 
was  one  chorus,  oft  repeated,  that  was  certainly  of  Span- 
ish origin,  and  questioning  Tata  Lorenzo,  he  informed 
me  that  it  was  taught  to  his  ancestors,  long,  long  years 
ago  by  the  padres. 

The  dancing  kept  up  until  near  the  time  of  the  setting- 
sun.  Then  all  the  crowd  seemed  to  center  in  front  of 
one  of  the  house-tops  on  which  the  caciques  and  medicine 
men  were  seated,  calmly  smoking  cigarettes  and  awaiting 
the  arrival  of  some  one.  Almost  simultaneously  with  our 
own  arrival  at  the  rear  of  the  crowd  there  came  two  stal- 
wart young  fellows,  followed  by  two  buxom  Indian  maid- 
ens, each  laden  down  with  the  gifts  that  had  been  de- 
posited during  the  day  in  front  of  the  altar.  Setting 
these  down  by  the  side  of  the  caciques,  they  withdrew  to 
watch  the  fun  they  knew  would  follow.  The  caciques 
arose,  and,  picking  up  the  articles  one  by  one,  hurled  them 
out  into  the  midst  of  the  crowd.  One  can  imagine  the 
shouts,  yells  and  cheers  that  followed.  A  baked  shoulder 
of  mutton  was  followed  by  a  half  dozen  loaves,  baked 
in  a  peculiar  mold  to  conform  to  certain  religious  ideas. 
Pieces  of  red  calico  were  whirled  out,  followed  or  pre- 
ceded by  a  squash  or  watermelon.  If  either  of  the  latter 
happened  to  miss  the  hands  of  its  would-be  catcher  and 
was  smashed  in  its  fall,  the  jollity  and  merriment  seemed 
only  to  be  increased.  The  skill  of  the  catchers  was 
equaled  only  by  the  speed  with  which  they  disposed  of 
that  which  they  caught,  each  catcher  evidently  having  an 
accomplice  to  carry  what  was  caught,  and  with  whom, 


170    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

possibly,  he  shared  his  plunder  later  on.  This  merry 
scene  continued  until  all  the  gifts  were  distributed,  and 
that  brought  to  a  close  the  ceremonies  of  that  particular 
day. 

On  one  occasion,  however,  I  was  present  at  the  Fiesta 
dc  San  Estcban  at  Acoma,  when  I  had  several  friends 
with  me.  There  were  two  ladies,  Gardner  Symons,  the 
well-known  artist,  and  a  distinguished  French  priest,  who 
afterwards  became  the  bishop  of  an  adjoining  state.  Fa- 
ther Juillard  was  also  present,  and  he  had  brought  with 
him  a  fine  silver  cornet  upon  which  he  played  with  con- 
siderable ability.  Having  in  mind  what  we  now  pro- 
ceeded  to  carry  out  I  had  provided  myself  with  some 
fifty  pounds  of  cheap  candy.  While  everybody  was  hav- 
ing time  to  eat  after  the  violent  exertions  of  the  day  — 
either  as  participants  or  sight-seers  —  messengers  were 
sent  to  announce  that  all  the  children  of  the  pueblo  were 
to  meet  me  at  Tata  Lorenzo's  house,  to  have  a  proces- 
sion of  their  own,  and  be  treated  to  "  dulces."  In  half 
an  hour  we  were  surrounded  by  a  happy,  shouting,  ges- 
ticulating mob,  howling  and  laughing,  as  we  threw  hand- 
fuls  of  candy  in  the  air  in  every  direction,  and  let  the 
youngsters  scramble  for  it. 

Then,  as  the  padre  played  the  airs  on  his  cornet,  I 
taught  the  youngsters  to  sing  them,  which  they  did  with 
a  vim  and  an  accent  that  made  them  very  amusing. 
When  they  had  learned  "  John  Brown's  Body  Lies 
Mold'ring  in  the  Grave  "  and  "  Marching  Through  Geor- 
gia," we  formed  a  procession,  and,  led  by  the  cornet,  the 
whole  mob  of  us  started  to  procession  the  town,  singing 
these  two  songs,  just  as  the  religious  procession  had 
marched  through  the  town  in  the  morning.  In  a  few 
moments  every  housetop  had  its  Indian  occupants,  and 
smiling  bronzed  faces  of  papas  and  mamas,  aunts  and 


Dance  at  the  Fiesta  de  San  Esteban  at  Acoma. 

From  a  Painting  made  expressly  for  the  author  by 
Eva  Almond  Withrow. 


Acoma,  the  City  of  the  Cliffs  1.71 

uncles,  cousins,  grandpas  and  grandmas,  were  waving 
and  shouting  greeting  to  the  happy,  boisterous  band  of 
youngsters  and  the  jolly-hearted  priest  and  the  white  men 
who  were  making  a  festival  for  the  little  ones. 

No  idea  of  hurting  the  Indians'  feelings  entered  our 
minds,  for  I  knew  they  were  too  simple-hearted,  too  fond 
of  their  own  fun  to  regard  this  as  any  other  than  good- 
natured  amusement.  Indeed,  in  several  of  their  cere- 
monies —  as  with  the  Zunis  and  other  Pueblos  —  they 
have  "  Delight  Makers  "  who  openly  caricature  nearly 
everything  done  by  their  shamans  in  their  sacred  cere- 
monials. 

Everybody  was  delighted.  Everybody  wTas  radiantly 
happy.  Everybody  thought  it  a  grand  conclusion  to  the 
interesting  and  happy  day. 

But  even  when  all  the  children  had  been  dismissed  and 
we  had  returned  to  Lorenzo's  house,  we  found"  the  pro- 
gram was  not  yet  completed.  Tata  Lorenzo  had  so  en- 
joyed the  playing  of  the  cornet  that  he  had  requested  the 
padre  to  give  him  and  his  family  a  little  more  music. 
Gladly  the  genial  padre  responded  to  his  request,  and  for 
an  hour  or  more  played  all  kinds  of  American,  French 
and  other  airs  in  which  we  now  and  again  joined  in 
chorus. 

Some  of  these  songs  were  college  songs,  and  in  these 
Symons  joined  with  all  the  swing  and  vigour  and,  by 
and  by,  some  of  the  "  cutting-up  "  spirit  of  our  college 
youth  when  they  are  bent  on  having  a  good  time.  He 
and  Tata  Lorenzo  were  already  great  friends,  and  it  must 
have  been  the  very  opposite  of  their  characters  that  had 
bound  them  together.  Tata  Lorenzo  was  the  most  sol- 
emn, dignified,  stately  Indian  we  met  on  the  whole  trip; 
while  Mr.  Symons  was  of  that  excitable,  vivacious,  jolly 
temperament  that  made  fun  of,  for,  and  with  everything 


172    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

and  everybody.  Yet  it  mattered  not  what  he  did,  his 
every  act  seemed  to  meet  the  approval  of  Lorenzo,  and 
now,  all  at  once,  he  started  a  fantastic,  dramatic  repre- 
sentation of  that  wild,  foolish,  frivolous  and  ridiculous 
song,  "  The  Wild  Man  of  Borneo  Has  Just  Come  to 
Town."  Thrusting  his  fingers  through  his  long  hair  and 
making  it  stand  on  end,  turning  up  his  coat  collar  and 
acting  like  a  veritable  wild  man,  dancing  and  gesticulating 
with  a  fantastic  ferocity  and  vigour  that  only  a  wild 
African  could  have  emulated,  he  sung  in  inimitable  style 
this  excruciatingly  ridiculous  thing  —  that  is,  it  was  ex- 
cruciatingly  ridiculous  as  he  sung  it.  In  front  of  him 
sat  the  dignified  Lorenzo.  Advancing  toward  him,  re- 
treating from  him,  dancing  to  the  right  and  left  of  him, 
making  all  kinds  of  dramatic  gestures,  couth  and  uncouth, 
he  sang  until  the  rest  of  us  were  hysterical  with  laughter. 
Without  a  change  of  facial  expression  to  signify  what  he 
thought,  the  immobile  Indian  sat  looking  and  listening, 
and  only  at  the  conclusion  of  the  song,  his  hearty  con- 
gratulations as  he  arose  and  patted  his  white  friend  on 
the  back,  affectionately  putting  his  arm  around  him, 
showed  how  sincerely  he  meant  it  when  in  his  simple  way 
he  exclaimed  in  Spanish,  "  Esta  bueno!  Esta  mucho 
bueno !  " 

Symons  is  now  the  dignified  artist,  not  only  a  proud 
and  happy  benedict,  but  the  winner  of  several  notable 
prizes  eagerly  coveted  by  artists,  but  I  doubt  not  he  often 
looks  back  with  feelings  of  merriment  to  that  riotous  day 
on  the  mesa  at  ancient  Acoma. 

My  last  visit  to  Acoma  was  at  the  beginning  of  winter 
at  the  close  of  the  year  19 17.  Several  lectures  I  had 
given  in  Albuquerque  had  aroused  the  desire  of  a  num- 
ber of  its  citizens  to  see  Acoma  and  the  Enchanted  Mesa. 
Accordingly  I  was  asked  if  I  would  accompany  a  party. 


Acoma,  the  City  of  the  Cliffs         173 

In  two  days  thirty-five  —  some  of  them  students  of  the 
Albuquerque  Business  College  —  were  ready  to  go  in  au- 
tomobiles that  were  provided.  Part  of  the  way  the  roads 
were  fairly  good;  and  of  the  rest  the  less  said  the  better. 
Lunching  on  the  way  and  considering  the  roads  we  made 
fairly  good  time,  though  we  got  lost  after  making  the  turn 
south  into  the  valley  so  eloquently  described  on  another 
page  by  Mr.  Lummis.  Hence,  that  night,  though  it  was 
cold  and  frosty,  we  camped  at  the  foot  of  Katsimo,  the 
Enchanted  Mesa.  After  a  rousing  fire  had  been  built, 
coffee  and  Horlick's  malted  milk  made  and  our  supper 
partaken  of,  all  of  us  well  wrapped  up  and  as  comfortable 
as  we  could  make  ourselves,  I  read  to  the  party  Lummis's 
version  of  the  "  Enchanted  and  Enchanting  Mesa,"  after 
which  I  told  how  Professor  Libbey  scaled  the  height  and 
of  the  great  discussion  that  followed  (as  related  in  the 
chapter  devoted  to  this  subject).  To  say  that  the  party 
as  a  whole  slept  comfortably  that  night  would  be  a 
stretching  of  the  truth.  I  verily  believe  I  did  better  than 
any  one  else,  though  none  of  us  was  extra  well  provided 
with  bedding.  In  the  morning,  however,  a  rejuvenation 
of  the  fire,  a  hearty  breakfast,  with  one  or  two  cups  of 
steaming  hot  coffee,  put  jollity  into  all  of  us,  and  we  pro- 
ceeded to  Acoma.  There,  before  ascending  the  trail, 
I  deemed  it  well  to  notify  the  governor  of  our  arrival 
and  ask  his  permission  to  visit  the  village,  enter  the 
church,  and  see  all  the  interesting  sights.  I  also  sent 
word  to  a  former  governor,  who  was  now  a  principale, 
and  with  whom  I  had  foregathered  a  number  of  times  at 
the  San  Francisco  Exposition  of  191 5,  and  in  whose  home 
at  Acoma  I  had  been  a  guest  on  half  a  dozen  different 
occasions,  that  I  should  be  pleased  to  see  him.  Our  In- 
dian messenger  soon  returned  with  the  information  that 
the  governor  and  the  principales  were  engaged  in  a  solemn 


174    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

ceremonial  in  the  kiva,  which  would  last  eight  more  days, 
and  at  the  end  of  that  time,  and  not  before,  we  were  wel- 
come to  ascend  the  trail  and  see  Acoma. 

Here  was  cheering  tidings!  Some  members  of  the 
company,  having  the  ordinary  Eastern  conception  of  the 
quarrelsomeness  and  blood-thirstiness  of  the  Indian,  were 
for  retiring  immediately.  But  I  urged  them  to  wait 
awhile.  Asking  the  party  to  keep  together  and  when  I 
signaled  them  to  come  ahead  in  perfect  silence,  I  recon- 
noitered,  found  no  sentinels  watching,  or  guards  to  pre- 
vent our  ascending  by  the  southwest  trail,  so  I  decided 
to  steal  a  march  upon  the  Indians  and  reach  the  top  and 
then  defy  them  to  send  us  down. 

Almost  breathlessly,  some  of  the  party  scared  white 
with  the  daring  of  the  adventure,  and  all  of  us  out  of 
breath  before  we  reached  the  top,  as  silently  as  an  Ameri- 
can patrol  crossing  No  Man's  Land  to  reach  the  Hun 
trenches,  we  scaled  the  height  and  stood  near  the  rear  of 
the  old  Mission  church.  Here  our  presence  was  soon 
detected,  and  the  governor  and  official  interpreter,  hav- 
ing hastily  been  summoned,  appeared  to  bar  our  way. 
"  Were  we  not  told  that  we  could  not  come  ?  Did  we 
not  know  we  were  unwelcome?  Had  we  not  been  in- 
formed that  sacred  and  secret  ceremonies  were  going  on? 
That  the  presence  of  white  people  at  such  a  time  might 
drive  away  the  gods?  " 

Resolved  to  be  as  courteous  and  considerate  as  the 
conditions  would  allow,  but  feeling  that  in  forbidding 
us  the  mesa  and  the  village  they  were  transcending  their 
power  I  insisted  that  Tata  Lorenzo  (my  old  friend)  be 
sent  for.  In  a  short  time  he  came  from  the  depths  of 
the  kiva.  In  his  eyes  were  the  mysteries  of  the  important 
rites,  in  the  performance  of  which  he  was  engaged,  and 
instead  of  his  ordinary  warm  hand-clasp  and  embrace, 


Acoma,  the  City  of  the  Cliffs  175 

he  looked  right  through  me,  refusing  to  speak  or  to  recog- 
nize me. 

This  was  immediately  taken  by  some  of  the  party  as  a 
sign  that  we  should  speedily  be  thrown  from  the  mesa 
as  were  the  daring  Spaniards  of  old.  But  recognizing  the 
fact  that  Lorenzo  was  now  engaged  in  one  of  those  mystic 
rites  that  required  that  he  see  and  speak  with  no  outsider 
during  its  continuance  —  even  as  the  Navahos  officially 
and  formally  may  never  see  their  mothers-in-law  —  I 
turned  my  attention  to  the  governor.  He  then  handed 
me  a  paper  on  which  was  written  in  handwriting  I  imme- 
diately recognized  the  following  notice : 

To  whom  it  may  concern : 

Any  person  or  persons  desirous  to  visit  the  old  historic  village 
of  Acoma  will  please  see  the  Governor  or  some  one  of  the 
principales. 

There  will  be  a  charge  of  one  dollar  for  each  person  for  just 
visiting  around  the  old  pueblo  of  Acoma. 

These  shall  have  an  escort  to   show   places  of  interest. 

If  any  person  or  persons  desiring  to  take  pictures  for  private 
use  will  be  charged  a  fee  of  five  dollars  for  the  liberty  to  do  so. 

We  desire  to  be  courteous  to  all  and  wish  the  same  good  will  of 
people. 

We  will  be  glad  to  show  and  explain  to  all  persons  coming  to  us 
the  right  way  any  place  or  places  of  importance. 

Please  see  or  arrange  with  some  official  and  principale  of  the 
Acomas. 

Very  respectfully  yours, 

Rio  Garcia, 
Governor  Acoma. 
January  12,  1917. 

As  soon  as  I  had  read  this  document  I  asked,  "  Who 
wrote  this?  "  and  immediately  the  interpreter  replied,  "  I 
did!" 

"  You,"  I  exclaimed ;  "  this  was  written  by  James 
Miller,"  my  Acoma  friend  of  long  ago. 

"  What  do  you  know  of  James  Miller?  "  he  asked. 


176    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

I  began  to  tell  him,  and  at  the  same  time  to  look  more 
carefully  at  him  than  hitherto  I  had  done.  In  the  midst 
of  my  explanation  I  burst  out,  "  Why,  you  are  James 
Miller,  you  rascal!  What  do  you  mean  by  holding  us  up 
in  this  inhospitable  fashion?" 

In  two  or  three  minutes  everything  was  made  clear 
and  straight,  and  all  difficulties  removed.  He  had  aged 
so  much  in  a  few  years  that  I  had  not  recognized  him. 
I  promised  that  we  would  keep  away  from  the  kiva  (in 
which  I  had  spent  several  nights  in  Miller's  company  at 
ceremonies  I  have  never  yet  seen  described).  We  merely 
wished  to  see  the  homes  of  the  people,  one  of  the  reser- 
voirs, and  the  old  mission  church.  Himself  acting  as  our 
guide  we  were  shown  all  we  wished  to  see,  the  only  halt 
being  a  diplomatic  one  at  the  church,  the  key  of  which 
could  not  be  found.  Taking  up  a  collection  I  suggested 
that  the  amount  would  be  transferred  inside  the  church. 
In  three  minutes  the  transfer  was  made  and  Miller  was 
giving  the  party  the  history  of  the  old  painting  and  an- 
swering the  thousand  and  one  questions  that  were  asked 
him.  A  happy  morning  was  spent  and  it  was  with  re- 
luctance we  tore  ourselves  away,  feeling  to  the  full  what 
Lummis  declares : 

It  is  a  labyrinth  of  wonder  of  which  no  person  alive  knows  all, 
and  of  which  not  six  white  men  have  even  an  adequate  conception, 
though  hundreds  have  seen  it  in  part.  The  longest  visit  never  wears 
out  its  glamour :  one  feels  as  in  a  strange,  sweet,  unearthly  dream 
—  as  among  scenes  and  beings  more  than  human,  whose  very 
rocks  are  genii,  and  whose  people  swart  conjurors.  It  is  spend- 
thrift of   beauty. 

We  had  all  felt  its  glamour  and  went  away  forever  to 
be  under  its  spell,  glad  to  be  able  to  call  up  its  wonderful 
memories  and  let  our  imaginations  conjure  back  its  un- 
earthly beauties,  its  weird  romances,  its  thrilling  history, 
and  its  unguessed  mysteries. 


Acoma,  the  City  of  the  Cliffs         177 

Of  the  other  Pueblos  of  New  Mexico  one  could  write 
not  one  but  many  books.  This  chapter,  and  those  on 
Zuni  and  Taos,  however,  must  serve  as  an  introduction 
to  the  reader  if  he  be  unfamiliar  with  them.  Each  has 
its  own  peculiar  fascination,  Santo  Domingo,  for  instance, 
to  this  day,  strongly  resenting  the  presence  of  any  white 
persons  at  their  ceremonials. 


CHAPTER  X 

KATZIMO THE    ENCHANTED    MESA 

One  of  the  most  romantic  of  all  the  many  romantic 
spots  of  New  Mexico  is  the  Enchanted  Mesa,  not  far 
from  Acoma,  the  city  of  the  Sky.  This  was  first  brought 
into  public  prominence  by  Charles  F.  Lummis,  who,  in  a 
volume  of  New  Mexico  stories,1  tells  its  fascinating  story 
in  his  best  style.  The  basis  of  the  story  is  a  legend  told 
by  the  Acoma  Indians  that,  long  centuries  ago,  they  occu- 
pied the  summit  of  the  Enchanted  Mesa  —  Indian,  Kat- 
zimo  —  as  their  home.  The  quotations  are  all  from  Mr. 
Lummis's  book. 

The  story  opens  with  the  proclamation  of  the  Gover- 
nor: 

Hear  ye,  people  of  Acoma,  for  I,  the  Governor,  speak.  To-mor- 
row, go  ye  down  to  the  fields  to  plow ;  already  it  is  the  month  of 
rain,  and  there  is  little  in  the  storerooms.  Let  all  go  forth,  that 
we  build  shelters  of  cedar  and  stay  in  the  fields.  The  women,  also, 
to  cook  for  us.  Take  ye,  each  one,  food  for  a  month.  And  pray 
that  the  Sun-Father,  Pa-yct-yama,  give  us  much  corn  this  year. 

The  people  gladly  obeyed  this  official  summons  save 
one  boy  whose  father  thus  charged  him : 

Thy  mother  is  very  sick  and  cannot  go  to  the  fields,  and  it  is  not 
kind  to  leave  her  alone.  Only  that  I  am  a  councilor  of  the  city 
and  must  give  a  good  example  in  working,  I  would  stay  with  her. 
A  hundred  children  will  go  to  the  fields,  but  thou  shalt  be  a  man 
to  keep  the  town.  Two  other  women  lie  sick  near  the  estufa,  and 
thou  shalt  care  for  thy  mother  and  for  them. 

1  A  New  Mexico  David,  By  Charles  F.  Lummis. 

178 


u 
is 

w 

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K 

H 

O 

13 


Katzimo  —  The  Enchanted  Mesa       179 

Though  the  fifteen-year-old  lad  was  exceedingly  dis- 
appointed that  he  could  not  go,  he  bravely  acquiesced  in 
his  father's  command,  and  the  next  morning  soon  after 
sunrise  the  exodus  began. 

Already  a  long  procession  of  men,  women,  and  children,  bearing 
heavy  burdens  for  the  packs,  was  starting  toward  the  southern 
brink  of  the  cliff.  A  deep,  savage  cleft,  gnawed  out  by  the  rains 
of  centuries,  afforded  a  dangerous  path  for  five  hundred  feet 
downward ;  and  then  began  the  great  Ladder  Rock.  A  vast  stone 
column,  once  part  of  the  mesa,  but  cut  off  by  the  erosion  of  un- 
numbered ages,  had  toppled  over  so  that  its  top  leaned  against 
the  cliff,  its  base  being  two  hundred  feet  out  in  a  young  mountain 
of  soft,  white  sand.  Up  this  almost  precipitous  rock  a  series 
of  shallow  steps  had  been  cut.  To  others,  this  dizzy  ladder  would 
have  seemed  insurmountable ;  but  these  sure-footed  Children  of 
the  Sun  thought  nothing  of  it.  It  gave  the  only  possible  access 
to  the  mesa's  top,  and  a  well-aimed  stone  would  roll  a  climbing 
enemy  in  gory  fragments  to  the  bottom.  They  could  afford  a  little 
trouble  for  the  sake  of  having  the  most  impregnable  city  in  the 
world  —  these  quiet  folk  who  hated  war,  but  lived  among  the 
most  desperate  savage  warriors  the  world  has  ever  known. 

Left  alone,  the  boy  proceeded  to  care  for  his  mother 
and  the  two  other  sick  ones,  and,  fearful  lest  the  hated 
Apaches  might  come  in  the  absence  of  the  warriors,  he 
piled  up  stones  as  weapons  at  the  head  of  the  stone  trail 
to  throw  down  upon  them  should  they  appear. 

For  two  days  things  moved  along  uneventfully,  though 
the  lad  slept  at  night  at  the  sentry  post  above  the  ladder 
to  guard  against  surprise. 

This  night  when  he  had  fed  the  sick,  A'-chi-te  took  his  bow  and 
quiver  and  started  for  his  post.  It  was  already  growing  dark,  and 
the  storm  showed  no  sign  of  abatement.  It  was  a  fearful  climb 
down  to  his  little  crow's  nest  of  a  fort.  The  narrow,  slippery  path 
was  at  an  average  angle  of  over  fifty  degrees,  and  was  now  choked 
with  a  seething  torrent.  He  had  at  one  time  to  climb  along  pre- 
carious ledges  above  the  water,  and  at  another  to  trust  him- 
self waist  deep  in  that  avalanche  of  foam  — keeping  from  being 
swept  down  to  instant  death  only  by  pressing  desperately  against 
the  rocky  walls  of  the  gorge,  here  not  more  than  three  feet  apart. 


180    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

But  at  last,  trembling  with  exhaustion,  he  drew  himself  up  to  his 
little  niche  and  sank  upon  his  drenched  bed,  while  the  white  torrent 
bellowed  and  raved  under  his  feet,  as  if  maddened  at  the  loss  of  its 
expected  prey.  Deeper  and  deeper  grew  the  darkness,  fiercer  the 
storm.  Such  a  rain  had  never  been  seen  before  in  all  the  country 
of  Hano  Oshatch.  It  came  down  in  great  sheets  that  veered 
and  slanted  with  the  desperate  wind,  dug  up  stout  cedars  by  the 
roots,  and  pried  great  rocks  from  their  lofty  perches  to  send  them 
thundering  down  the  valley.  To  the  shivering  boy,  drenched  and 
alone  in  his  angle  of  the  giant  cliff,  it  was  a  fearful  night;  and 
older  heroes  than  he  might  have  been  pardoned  for  uneasiness. 
But  he  never  thought  of  leaving  his  post;  and,  hugging  the  rocky 
wall  to  escape  as  he  could  the  pitiless  pelting  of  the  cold  rain,  he 
watched  the  long  hours  through. 

Then  he  heard  the  call  of  his  mother.  The  house  had 
fallen  and  had  broken  her  arm  and  she  requested  him  to 
descend  to  the  valley  and  run  at  once  and  bring  his  father, 
ere  she  died. 

It  was  a  terrible  task  to  descend  that  rocky  ladder-way, 
and  several  times  the  rushing  waters  almost  swept  him 
away.  He  was  sure,  as  he  climbed  down  the  slippery 
slope,  that  the  great  Ladder  Rock  trembled. 

It  took  him  half  an  hour  to  reach  the  bottom  of  the 
rock,  and  then,  when  he  looked  downward,  he  was  aghast. 
In  the  great  heap  of  sand  upon  which  the  Ladder  Rock 
had  rested  for  centuries,  the  dashing  waters  had  gnawed 
a  gully  fifty  feet  deep.  There  was  but  one  way  of  escape, 
and  that  was  to  jump  into  the  pinion  tree  ten  feet  below 
and  fifteen  feet  away.  Desperately  he  made  the  leap  and 
fell  crushing  through  the  brittle  branches,  catching  him- 
self, and  breaking  his  fall.  Then  dashing  off  down  the 
valley  to  the  fields  eight  miles  away,  he  felt  assured  that 
his  errand  would  succeed. 

Suddenly  he  felt  the  ground  quiver  beneath  his  feet.  A  strange 
rushing  sound  filled  his  ears ;  and,  whirling  about,  he  saw  the 
great  Ladder  Rock  rear,  throw  its  head  out  from  the  cliff,  reel 
there   an   instant   in    mid-air,   and   then   go    toppling    out    into    the 


Katzimo  —  The  Enchanted  Mesa       181 

plain  like  some  wounded  Titan.  As  those  thousands  of  tons  of 
rock  smote  upon  the  solid  earth  with  a  hideous  roar,  a  great  cloud 
went  up,  and  the  valley  seemed  to  rock  to  and  fro.  From  the 
face  of  the  cliffs,  three  miles  away,  great  rocks  came  leaping  and 
thundering  down,  and  the  tall  pinions  swayed  and  bowed  as  before 
a  hurricane.  A'-chi-te  was  thrown  headlong  by  the  shock,  and  lay 
stunned.  The  Ladder  Rock  had  fallen  —  the  unprecedented  flood 
had  undermined  its  sandy  bed ! 

When  the  flood  subsided  the  Acomas  returned  to  their 
mesa  to  find  the  steep  walls  forbidding  access  to  their 
former  home,  and  though  they  heard  the  wails  of  their 
despairing  women,  there  was  no  scaling  those  precipitous 
cliffs. 

Thus,  forever  afterwards,  this  rock  of  startling 
grandeur  to  the  stranger  was  to  them  Katzimo,  the  ac- 
cursed. 

Thus  the  legend.  Reading  this  charming  story  as 
thousands  of  others  had  done,  Professor  William  Libbey 
of  Princeton,  determined  to  make  the  ascent  of  the  Mesa 
and  see  what  he  could  find  on  its  summit. 

Not  a  few  people,  myself  among  the  number,  had  es- 
sayed this  task  but  without  success.  Professor  Libbey 
determined  to  waste  no  efforts.  Securing  a  mortar  from 
which  a  life-saving  line  is  shot  to  a  wrecked  vessel,  he 
fired  a  rope  over  the  Mesa,  securely  fastened  it,  and  then 
made  the  ascent  in  a  boatswain's  chair.  He  failed  to 
find  any  evidence  of  former  occupation,  and  so  re- 
ported. 

At  once  a  bitter  controversy  was  started  that,  in  fury 
and  virulence,  almost  equaled  the  vindictive  assaults  of 
rival  theologians.  A  little  later  Frederick  W.  Hodge,  of 
the  Bureau  of  American  Ethnology,  made  the  ascent  and 
found  many  evidences  of  human  presence  and  thus  re- 
garded the  legend  as  confirmed. 

When  I  entered  the  controversy  my  opinion  was  ex- 


182    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

pressed  in  the  Scientific  American  Supplement  (April  22, 
1899)  as  follows.  I  have  seen  no  reason  to  change  it  in 
the  years  that  have  since  elapsed : 

To  my  mind  the  question  to  be  decided  is :  Does  any- 
thing on  the  summit  or  near  the  Mesa  Encantada  bear  out 
the  centuries-old  tradition  of  the  Acomas  that  this  was 
once  the  home  of  their  ancestors? 

And  this  point,  I  think,  it  will  be  conceded,  must  be 
settled  by  one  or  more  of  the  following : 

1.  By  discovery  of  ruins  on  the  Mesa  large  enough  to 
account  for  the  residence  of  a  whole  people. 

2.  By  discovery  of  such  evidences  of  occupation  by 
large  numbers  of  people  as  to  reasonably  satisfy  the 
seeker,  if  the  ruins  mentioned  in  proposition  one  are 
absent. 

3.  By  satisfactorily  accounting  for  the  absence  of 
either  ruins  or  direct  evidences  of  occupation,  if  neither 
are  found. 

The  importance  of  settling  the  discussion  in  a  legiti- 
mate manner  is  evident  to  the  student  of  Indian  lore  and 
tradition.  It  is  readily  apparent  that,  if  this  tradition  is 
discredited,  a  first  and  great  step  is  taken  toward  dis- 
crediting all  Indian  tradition,  and  thus  another  obstacle 
is  placed  in  the  way  of  arriving  at  reasonably  accurate 
conclusions  in  regard  to  the  prehistoric  life  of  all  Indian 
peoples.  So,  personally,  I  am  profoundly  anxious  that 
the  main  and  important  features  of  the  Katzimo  tradition 
of  Acoma  should  be  preserved  in  all  their  integrity  and 
fullness,  and  ultimately  demonstrated,  beyond  all  ques- 
tion, to  be  true. 

That  evidences  of  human  presence  were  found  on  Kat- 
zimo all  agree,  but  there  is  a  vast  difference  between  evi- 
dences of  human  presence  and  evidence  that  a  large  vil- 
lage or  city  was  once  here  occupied. 


Katzimo  —  The  Enchanted  Mesa       183 

Had  the  Acomas  lived  on  the  Mesa  Encantada,  several 
things  are  morally  certain.     These  are  : 

i.  They  undoubtedly  would  have  built  their  houses  as 
elsewhere  in  this  region  we  find  mesa  cities  built,  viz.,  not 
of  adobe,  which  would  have  to  be  carried  by  arduous 
labour  from  the  valley  beneath,  but  of  the  chips  and 
pieces  or  blocks  of  sandstone  left  by  erosion  on  the  mesa 
top  and  on  side  terraces,  easily  accessible  and  far  more 
suitable  than  adobe. 

Ruins  of  such  cities  are  found  all  through  this  region 
on  mesas.  On  the  mesa  just  above  the  Cibolleta  ranch 
is  a  large  circular  fort  ruin,  with  a  circumference  of 
nearly  a  thousand  feet,  built  of  sandstone,  and  in  a  fair 
state  of  preservation.  About  fifteen  miles  further  west 
is  another  ruin  on  a  mesa  overlooking  the  lava  fields.  A 
wall  150  feet  long  (or  more)  crosses  the  mesa,  and  be- 
hind it  is  a  large  area  covered  with  ruins.  On  the  top 
parts  of  El  Morro,  or  Inscription  Rock,  are  also  two 
stone  ruins  covering  moderate  sized  areas.  All  these 
ruins  are  in  a  fair  state  of  preservation. 

2.  Had  such  a  city  existed  on  Mesa  Encantada,  the 
ruins  undoubtedly  would  have  remained  exactly  as  in  the 
cases  referred  to.  I  do  not  think  large  blocks  and  pieces 
of  sandstone  would  have  been  eroded  or  washed  away. 
The  sloping  condition  of  the  Mesa  Encantada  summit  is 
by  no  means  unusual.  The  Circular  Ruins  at  Cibolleta 
are  on  a  sloping  mesa,  so  also  are  the  other  two  sets  of 
ruins  mentioned.  And  yet,  according  to  the  Indian  tra- 
ditions recounted  to  me  both  at  Acoma  and  Zuni,  and 
verified  by  Navahos,  Hopis,  and  Lagunas,  all  these  ruins 
are  as  ancient  (or  more  so)  as  the  ruins  of  Acoma  would 
have  been  had  they  occupied  Katzimo. 

3.  Another  matter  of  importance  should  be  considered. 
The  village  of  the  Acomas  in  the  early  days  must  neces- 


184    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

sarily  have  been  much  larger  than  the  modern  Acoma. 
For  Juan  de  Onate  estimated  its  population  at  3,000,  and 
Villagra  in  his  epic  says  it  was  6,000  when  the  attack  of 
Capt.  Vicente  de  Zaldivar  took  place  on  January  22,  1599. 
Only  600  of  these  people  remained  after  the  conflict. 
The  present-day  population  of  Acoma  is  less  than  600, 
and  yet  six  or  more  large  blocks  of  three-storied  houses 
are  all  occupied  in  housing  them  on  their  present  site. 
Now,  taking  the  population  of  3,000  of  Onate's  estimate 
—  leaving  Villagra's  estimate  out  of  the  question  —  and 
then  reducing  the  number  to  2,000,  or  even  1,000,  it  is 
apparent  that  a  large  number  of  buildings  would  have  been 
required  to  house  them,  even  according  to  early  Pueblo 
methods,  and  such  a  town  would  neither  blow  away  nor 
wash  away  easily,  or  during  many  times  many  furious 
storms.  That  a  half  a  score  or  more  of  such  ruined  cities 
still  exist  on  wind,  cloud,  rain,  and  storm-swept  mesa 
summits  almost,  if  not  equally,  as  exposed  as  the  Mesa 
Encantada  city  (had  it  existed)  would  have  been,  nulli- 
fies, I  would  venture  to  suggest,  that  hypothesis. 
Hence  my  own  conclusions,  viz. : 

1.  That  while  Mesa  Encantada  was  undoubtedly  the 
scene  many  times  of  human  presence ;  and, 

2.  While  the  worn  trail  and  other  evidences  clearly 
demonstrate  that  the  Indians  have  often  visited  it,  these 
facts  ought  not  to  be  accepted  as  conclusive  evidence  of 
the  truth  of  our  interpretation  of  the  Acoma  tradition, 
viz.,  that  their  ancient  city  of  a  thousand  or  two  inhabi- 
tants was  once  located  here. 

3.  And  that,  in  my  opinion,  both  Indian  and  white  man 
are  at  fault  in  regard  to  the  exact  location  of  Katzimo, 
and  that  further  research  will  yet  discover  it  and  show  far 
more  positive  and  ocular  demonstration  of  its  having  been 
the  occupied  site  of  a  large  city  than  the  so-called  Kat- 


Katzimo  —  The  Enchanted  Mesa       185 

zimo  and  Mesa  Encantada  of  the  present  discussion  has 
done.     My  reasons  for  advancing  this  last  idea  are: 

i.  My  firm  belief  in  the  general  truth  and  reliability  of 
the  tradition. 

2.  The  unsatisfactory  evidence  adduced  in  favour  of 
the  village  occupancy  of  the  mesa  hitherto  known  as  the 
Mesa  Encantada. 

3.  My  knowledge  of  the  possibility  of  error,  both  by 
Indian  and  white,  owing  to  the  lapse  of  centuries,  in  de- 
termining the  location. 

4.  My  actual  conversations  with  Indians  of  Acoma, 
who  definitely  assert  that  the  scaled  mesa  is  not  their 
Katzimo,  and  that  "  may  be  so  "  some  day  they  will  con- 
duct me  to  the  real,  genuine,  sole,  and  only  Katzimo  or 
Mesa  Encantada,  where  many  ruins  are  to  be  found. 


CHAPTER  XI 

THE    ARTS    AND    INDUSTRIES    OF    THE    INDIANS 

Crude  and  primitive  though  the  creations  of  Indians 
may  seem  at  first  sight  there  are  many  things  of  historic 
interest,  of  inventive  genius,  and  of  decided  artistic  merit 
among  them  that  are  deserving  of  extended  notice. 

Among  Indians,  as  with  the  whites,  there  are  people 
who  have  their  art  specialties,  and  among  the  Pueblos, 
these,  in  general  terms,  may  be  stated  to  be  pottery,  silver- 
smithing,  and  bead-making.  We  must  not  ignore  the 
fact,  however,  that  the  Pueblos  build  their  own  houses  — 
the  women  doing  much  of  the  work,  which,  by  the  way, 
they  perfectly  delight  in.  Nothing  pleases  a  woman  more 
than  to  plaster  a  new  house  or  to  replaster  an  old  one. 
While  among  the  Hopis  of  Arizona,  the  women  practi- 
cally do  all  the  work,  the  Zunis  and  other  New  Mexico 
Pueblos  require  their  men  to  lay  the  stone  foundations, 
build  the  major  part  of  the  walls,  and  place  the  heavy 
ceiling  beams  in  position.  The  women  act  as  assistants, 
preparing  the  clay  for  mortar,  bringing  up  the  stones, 
and  gathering  the  willow  boughs  and  brush  that  are  to  be 
placed  across  the  beams  and  covered  with  a  thick  layer 
of  mud  to  make  the  roof.  The  little  girls  also  help,  espe- 
cially in  carrying  water  from  the  reservoirs  or  stream 
to  the  mortar  mixers,  and  the  scene  is  enlivened  by  their 
graceful  movements,  bright  coloured  dresses,  and  cheery 
chatter  as  they  pass  to  and  fro. 

There  are  also  some  weavers  among  them,  though  few 
blankets  are  made,  that  art  having  been  absorbed  almost 

186 


Arts  and  Industries  of  the  Indians     187 

entirely  by  the  Navahos.  A  few  men  are  to  be  found, 
however,  even  at  this  late  date,  who  weave  the  dresses  of 
the  women,  in  rich  diagonal  patterns,  with  wool  or  cotton 
dyed  deep  blue.  When  first  I  visited  the  New  Mexico 
pueblos,  over  thirty  years  ago,  there  were  many  such 
weavers,  but  it  is  a  rare  thing  to  find  these  garments  made 
now-a-days.  Our  flimsy,  civilized,  cheap,  coloured  calico 
garments  have  taken  their  place. 

The  same  may  be  said  of  the  beautifully  woven  garters, 
head-bands  and  girdles  still  worn  by  both  men  and  women. 
These  are  woven  by  either  men  or  women,  generally  the 
latter,  and  it  is  a  fascinating  sight  to  see  an  expert  weaver, 
with  her  primitive  appliances,  producing  one  of  these  ar- 
tistic and  desirable  articles. 

It  must  not  be  thought,  however,  that  the  Pueblos  are 
unable  to  weave  as  well  as  the  Navahos  if  they  so  desire. 
On  several  occasions  I  have  induced  Zunis,  Acomas,  and 
other  Pueblo  Indians  to  weave  blankets  for  me,  that  could 
not  be  differentiated  from  the  work  of  the  Navahos  and 
that  equaled  the  best  of  their  work.  Both  men  and 
women  are  able  to  do  this,  at  will,  but,  for  so  many  years 
has  the  Navaho  almost  monopolized  the  art  that  most 
people  think  the  Pueblo  never  had  it. 

Very  little  basketry  is  made,  and  that  of  a  crude  char- 
acter, except  by  a  few  of  the  Arizona  Apaches  who  occa- 
sionally drift  over  to  visit  their  New  Mexico  relatives. 
The  Mescalero  Apaches,  whose  reservation  is  not  far 
from  Tularosa,  make  baskets  in  large  numbers,  but  they 
are  of  coarse  weave,  wretchedly  dyed  and  not  to  be  com- 
pared with  the  exquisite  work  of  the  White  Mountain  and 
San  Carlos  Apaches  of  Arizona. 

Of  course  all  the  Indians  of  New  Mexico  are  farmers, 
familiar  with  irrigation  from  time  immemorial,  and  pro- 
ducing results  in  places  and  under  conditions  that  would 


188    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

be  discouraging,  if  not  entirely  disheartening,  to  most 
white  men.  Their  methods  of  planting  and  reaping  are 
simple  and  primitive  and  are  often  accompanied  by  re- 
ligious ceremonies  of  great  interest  because  of  their  deep 
symbolism.  To  see  a  man  planting  corn  with  his  rude 
stick  shovel  —  a  smoothed-off  bough  from  a  tree,  with 
the  lower  end  broad  and  sharpened  so  that  it  can  be 
thrust  into  the  ground  —  is  to  wonder  how  results  can 
be  produced  with  such  primitive  appliances. 

Their  irrigating  ditches  are  generally  well  planned  and 
engineered  and  are  effective,  except  when  flood  waters 
come  and  destroy  their  crude  little  head-works.  There  is 
scarcely  any  attempt  at  the  construction  of  dams,  though 
in  later  years  they  have  been  taught,  by  contact  with  the 
whites,  to  attempt  something  in  this  line. 

Their  chief  agricultural  products  are  corn,  beans, 
squash,  melons,  chili-peppers,  onions,  peaches,  alfalfa, 
barley  and  oats  for  hay. 

One  of  the  remarkable  things  about  their  corn  and 
beans  is  that  they  have  developed,  by  selection,  colours 
which  harmonize  with  the  six  regions;  yellow  for  the 
north,  blue  for  the  west,  red  for  the  south,  white  for  the 
east,  variegated  for  the  zenith,  and  black  for  the  nadir. 
"  They  have  all  shades  of  yellow  and  blue,"  says  Mrs. 
Stevenson,  of  the  Zunis,  and  "  red  from  the  deepest  car- 
dinal to  the  most  delicate  pink.  The  white  corn  is  in- 
tensely white,  and  there  are  remarkable  varieties  of  varie- 
gated corn.  There  are  several  shades  of  purple  corn,  and 
black  corn.  The  same  variety  of  shades  is  to  be  found 
in  the  beans,  which  are  grown  in  the  cornfield." 

The  symbolism  of  colour  is  most  important  to  the 
Pueblos,  as  well  as  to  the  Navahos.  I  have  dealt  with 
this  subject  with  a  certain  degree  of  fullness  elsewhere.1 
1  Indian  Blankets  and  their  Makers. 


Arts  and  Industries  of  the  Indians     189 

Perhaps  there  is  no  art  among  the  Pueblo  Indians  more 
distinctive  and  revelative  than  that  of  pottery. 

What  is  more  interesting  in  the  study  of  human  devel- 
opment than  the  first  steps  taken  toward  the  discovery  of 
useful  articles  or  implements?  Try  to  imagine  a  people 
existing  without  clothes,  houses,  a  single  utensil  of  clay, 
tin,  iron,  brass  or  other  metal,  without  a  basket,  a  tool, 
ignorant  of  the  properties  of  matter,  or  even  of  the 
existence  of  minerals  —  what  would  be  the  condition  of 
such  a  people?  Now  watch  them,  as,  step  by  step  they 
emerge  from  this  primitive  helplessness  and  begin  to  dis- 
cover, to  invent,  things  for  their  use  and  convenience. 

A  whole  treatise  has  been  written  upon  the  tremendous 
and  epochal  change  that  came  over  the  aboriginal  when 
he  discovered  the  use  of  sticks  and  stones  as  implements 
of  offense  and  defense. 

Is  it  not  easy  to  conceive  that  a  similar  change  came 
when  he  discovered  a  method  of  carrying  many  more 
things  than  his  two  hands  could  hold? 

There  has  been  considerable  discussion  among  the  anti- 
quarian ethnologists  as  to  which  was  discovered  first  — 
pottery  or  basketry.  Personally  I  am  inclined  to  accept 
the  conclusions  of  Lieut.  Frank  H.  Cushing,  stated  by 
him  in  a  monograph,  published  by  the  U.  S.  Bureau  of 
Ethnology.  He  shows  how,  even  to  this  day,  when  the 
Indian  wishes  to  parch  his  corn  or  other  seeds  he  takes 
a  handful  of  clay  and  molds  it  to  fit  the  shape  and  cover 
the  inside  of  his  saucer-shaped  basket.  This  protects  the 
wicker-work,  and  allows  the  mixing  with  the  seeds  of  a 
number  of  red-hot  coals  from  the  fire.  The  seeds  and 
coals  are  then  shuffled  about  by  rotary  and  shaking  move- 
ments of  the  basket,  until  the  cooking  process  is  complete. 
But  during  the  process  the  clay  becomes  baked,  and,  by 
and  by,  separates  itself  from  the  basket.     To  the  astonish- 


190    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

ment,  doubtless,  of  the  first  Indian  to  discover  it,  here  was 
a  new  utensil,  different  from  the  basket,  and  in  one  re- 
spect at  least,  superior  to  it  and  more  useful,  for  it  would 
hold  water.  This  is  the  beginning  of  the  art  of  pottery, 
and  unquestionably  all  bowls  and  other  vessels  were  long 
made  by  using  a  basket  as  a  matrix  or  mold. 

Then,  sometime,  somehow,  some  dark-skinned  little 
woman  hit  upon  the  plan  of  making  a  coil  or  rope  of 
clay,  and  winding  it  around  on  the  basket  she  wished  to 
use  as  a  pottery  mold,  instead  of  taking  a  dab  of  clay 
and  spreading  it  over  the  surface  with  her  hands. 

Most  of  the  earlier  specimens  of  pottery  clearly  reveal 
in  the  impressions  made  upon  the  plastic  clay,  the  weave 
of  the  basket  upon  which  they  were  molded,  and  the  way 
the  clay  was  pinched  to  hold  the  coils  together  is  also 
shown.  In  a  few  cases  the  outer  surface  was  smoothed 
over  so  that  practically  all  pinch  marks  were  erased. 

This  method  received  further  advancement  when  it 
was  discovered  that  the  clay  coils  would  stand  upright 
upon  each  other  without  the  support  of  a  basket  mold. 

From  the  date  of  this  discovery  the  origin  of  pottery- 
making  as  a  separate  and  distinct  art  may  be  said  to  begin. 
How  long  ago  that  is  we  can  only  conjecture,  but  we  do 
know  that,  save  for  the  discovery  of  variations  in  pottery 
forms,  and  the  addition  of  designs  upon  the  completed 
vessels,  there  has  been  no  further  advance.  For  the 
Pueblo  Indians  of  to-day  make  pottery  in  the  same  way 
that  it  has  been  made  for  centuries. 

The  method  is  simple.  At  Zuni,  Acoma,  Laguna  and 
all  the  pueblos  of  the  Rio  Grande  the  process  may  be 
watched  at  any  time,  for  there  are  good  potters  in  every 
village. 

After  the  clay  is  dug,  in  some  cases  different  kinds  are 
mixed  —  the  potters  having  found  that  vessels  made  from 


Arts  and  Industries  of  the  Indians     191 

mixed  clays  are  more  durable.  It  is  then  well  puddled  to 
make  it  soft  and  pliable,  though  they  do  not  seem  to  un- 
derstand that  washing  would  improve  it  by  taking  away 
the  impurities.  The  puddling  is  generally  a  simple 
kneading  with  the  hand.  When  all  is  ready,  the  potter, 
with  a  mass  of  clay  by  her  side,  begins  to  work.  Her 
only  tools  are  a  small  spatula  made  either  of  bone  or 
dried  gourd  skin,  a  bowl  of  water,  and  a  small  circular 
piece  of  basketry  to  act  as  a  base  for  the  vessel. 

Pinching  a  chunk  out  of  the  clay,  she  rolls  it  into  a 
rope  of  the  desired  thickness.  Then,  with  the  basket 
base  on  her  lap,  or  on  the  ground  at  her  side,  she  starts 
the  coil,  pressing  one  coil  close  to  the  preceding  one  with 
her  fingers,  and  revolving  the  basket  base  as  she  lays  the 
coil.  As  soon  as  one  clay  rope  is  exhausted,  she  makes 
another,  pinches  the  two  ends  together  to  make  the  coil 
continuous,  and  thus  continues  the  operation  until  the 
vessel  is  made. 

If  it  is  a  bowl  the  shaping  process  is  comparatively 
easy,  consisting  merely  of  smoothing  down  the  edges  of 
the  coil  until  a  plane  surface  is  produced,  the  left  hand 
sustaining  the  vessel  inside,  while  the  right  hand  uses  the 
spatula,  which  is  now  and  again  dipped  into  the  water  to 
keep  it  from  sticking. 

If,  however,  the  vessel  is  to  be  a  jar,  or  olla,  with  a 
narrow  neck  and  mouth,  not  only  must  the  clay-coil  be 
placed  with  accuracy  to  ensure  the  proper  proportionate 
enlargement,  but  it  must  be  smoothed  down  with  care  to 
prevent  undue  caving  in. 

As  soon  as  the  smoothing  down  is  completed  the  vessel 
is  allowed  to  remain  on  its  basket  base  in  the  sun  for  a 
day  or  two  when  it  shrinks  sufficiently  to  remove  it  with 
ease.  It  is  then  ready  to  be  decorated.  Cooking  uten- 
sils, however,  are  used  as  they  are.     White  clay  of  a  cer- 


192     New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

tain  proven  kind  is  taken,  dissolved  in  water,  and  then 
made  into  cones  which  are  dried  in  the  sun.  All  potters 
are  supposed  to  keep  a  stock  of  these  cones,  as  well  as 
pieces  of  rock,  red,  blue,  green,  yellow,  and  the  like,  for 
decorative  purposes.  When  needed  they  are  pounded  or 
ground  in  tiny  mortars  (similar  to  those  used  for  grind- 
ing their  corn,  only  smaller),  mixed  with  water  and  a 
vegetable  extract,  which  adds  to  its  sticking  qualities. 
The  colour  is  applied  to  the  whole  surface  of  the  vessel 
with  a  rabbit-skin  mop.  While  still  wet  the  process  of 
polishing  the  surface  begins.  Smooth  stones  of  flint  or 
other  hard  substance  are  rubbed  tirelessly  over  a  small 
area  until  it  shines.  When  the  whole  vessel  is  thus  pol- 
ished it  is  ready  for  the  decorative  design.  Without  any 
other  copy  than  that  carried  in  her  busy  and  artistic  little 
brain  the  decorator  goes  to  work.  Her  brush  is  made  of 
hair,  or  yucca  fiber,  and  her  colours  ground  with  a  mix- 
ture of  yucca  fruit  syrup  (to  give  them  extra  sticking 
qualities). 

The  black  pigment  is  mixed  with  water  from  boiled 
cleome  serrulata,  a  flowering  plant  called  by  the  Mexi- 
cans, waco.  Many  and  various,  strange  and  peculiar, 
striking  and  fantastic  are  the  designs  she  conjures  up. 
Some  of  them  are  purely  geometrical  —  squares,  paral- 
lelograms, circles,  diamonds  and  the  like ;  then  there  are 
flowers,  trees,  rocks,  rain-clouds  and  other  meteorological 
symbols,  birds,  reptiles,  animals,  men  and  women,  and 
occasionally,  the  masked  figures  that  represent  their  lesser 
divinities. 

The  ware  is  now  ready  to  be  fired.  For  this  purpose 
cakes  of  well-dried  dung  are  gathered  from  the  sheep  and 
goat  pens.  The  pottery  is  placed  on  rocks  to  raise  it 
slightly  from  the  ground,  and  then  the  dung  is  built  up 
around  and  over  it  so  as  to  form  an  oven.     It  is  then  set 


Arts  and  Industries  of  the  Indians     193 

on  fire,  and  so  manipulated  that  the  heat  increases  grad- 
ually until  it  is  intense,  the  process  lasting  about  two 
hours.  A  small  piece  of  wafer  bread  is  placed  in  each 
vessel,  in  order  that,  as  it  burns,  the  spiritual  essence  of 
the  vessel  may  absorb  the  spiritual  essence  of  the  bread. 

The  Zunis  believe  that  if  a  pregnant  woman  gazes  upon 
a  piece  of  pottery  while  it  is  being  fired  it  will  be  marred 
with  a  black  spot.  This  is  the  explanation  they  give  al- 
ways to  any  black  blemish  that  appears  during  the  firing. 

Among  the  pottery-makers  of  New  Mexico  perhaps 
the  Zunis  rank  highest,  both  as  to  the  quality  of  their 
ware,  its  durability,  and  the  striking  characters  of  the 
designs.  A  common  design  is  one  that  introduces  the 
deer,  with  a  long  tube  reaching  from  the  mouth  to  the 
stomach,  making  what,  to  the  white  critic,  is  a  rather 
amusing  representation. 

It  should  also  be  noted  that  many  of  the  designs,  espe- 
cially upon  the  older  pottery,  are  so  highly  conventional- 
ized that  only  the  initiated  can  determine  the  original  of 
the  motif. 

The  Acomas  make  a  showy  pottery  but  it  is  not  as 
strong  and  durable  as  that  of  the  Zunis.  Their  designs, 
however,  have  a  far  wider  scope  in  that  flowers,  leaves, 
and  trees  are  introduced. 

All  of  the  Pueblos  of  the  Rio  Grande  have  their  rep- 
resentative potters,  and  while  there  are  general  charac- 
teristics in  all  the  ware  made  there  are  some  minor  differ- 
ences which  enable  the  expert  to  tell  where  a  particular 
vessel  is  made. 

One  pueblo,  however,  that  of  Santo  Domingo,  makes  a 
ware  entirely  distinctive.  It  is  pure  black,  without  any 
design,  and  exceedingly  well  polished. 

That  the  collecting  of  clay  is  not  a  mere  material  proc- 
ess is  thus  explained  by  Mrs.  Stevenson,  in  her  great 


194    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

monograph  upon  the  Zunis.  She  is  telling  of  how  Col. 
Stevenson  and  herself  accompanied  We-wha  to  Corn 
Mountain  —  Taiyoallane  —  to  obtain  clay. 

"  On  passing  a  stone  heap  she  picked  up  a  small  stone 
in  her  left  hand,  and  spitting  upon  it,  carried  the  hand 
around  her  head  and  threw  the  stone  over  one  shoulder 
upon  the  stone  heap  in  order  that  her  strength  might  not 
go  from  her  when  carrying  the  heavy  load  down  the 
mesa.  She  then  visited  the  shrine  at  the  base  of  the 
mother  rock  and  tearing  off  a  bit  of  her  blanket  deposited 
it  in  one  of  the  tiny  pits  in  the  rock  as  an  offering  to  the 
mother  rock.  When  she  drew  near  to  the  clay  bed  she 
indicated  to  Mr.  Stevenson  that  he  must  remain  behind, 
as  men  never  approached  the  spot.  Proceeding  a  short 
distance  the  party  reached  a  point  where  Wewha  re- 
quested the  writer  to  remain  perfectly  quiet  and  not  talk, 
saying :  '  Should  we  talk,  my  pottery  would  crack  in 
the  baking,  and  unless  I  pray  constantly  the  clay  will  not 
appear  to  me.'  She  applied  the  hoe  vigorously  to  the 
hard  soil,  all  the  while  murmuring  prayers  to  Mother 
Earth.  Nine-tenths  of  the  clay  was  rejected,  every  lump 
being  tested  between  the  fingers  as  to  its  texture.  After 
gathering  about  one  hundred  and  fifty  pounds  in  a  blan- 
ket, which  she  carried  on  her  back,  with  the  ends  of  the 
blanket  tied  around  her  forehead,  Wewha  descended  the 
steep  mesa,  apparently  unconscious  of  the  weight." 


CHAPTER  XII 

THE    RELIGION    OF   THE    INDIANS 

In  my  nearly  forty  years'  study  of  that  which  has  been 
written  upon  the  religion  of  the  Indians  of  the  Southwest,  I 
have  constantly  had  borne  in  upon  me  the  widely  divergent 
standpoints  of  the  aborigines  and  those  who  presumed  to 
judge  and  write  about  them.  The  misunderstandings  are 
fundamental,  basic,  and  can  never  be  cleared  away  until 
the  white  man  banishes  his  prejudices,  and  with  an  open 
and  clear  mind  is  ready  to  look  upon  the  ideas  of  the 
Indian  as  the  Indian  himself  sees  them.  Unfortunately 
in  no  field  is  this  harder  to  accomplish  than  in  the  field 
of  religion.  Few  men  are  able  to  view  another's  religion 
entirely  and  solely  from  that  other's  viewpoint.  For  in- 
stance, I  have  yet  to  find  a  white  man  who,  at  first  sight, 
can  believe  that  any  reason  can  be  given  for  the  Indian's 
worship  of,  or  reverence  for,  a  rattlesnake.  Yet  from  the 
Indian's  standpoint  it  is  most  reasonable.  Suppose  an 
Indian  is  hunting  for  food  for  himself  and  family.  He 
has  neither  bow  nor  arrows,  lance,  slingshot  or  other 
weapon.  He  is  without  a  trap. —  I  am  presupposing  an 
Indian  before  these  things  were  invented. —  He  tries  to 
steal  upon  his  prey,  but  walk  he  never  so  gently  his  foot- 
steps are  heard  and  the  animal  escapes.  He  is  disap- 
pointed and  disheartened,  because  he  and  his  family  must 
remain  hungry.  As  he  goes  homeward,  acutely  conscious 
of  his  failure,  he  sees  a  snake  gliding  toward  the  same 
kind  of  creature  he  had  tried  to  catch.     Slowly,  stealthily, 

195 


196    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

but  surely,  the  snake  approaches  his  prey,  and  then  with 
a  sudden  dart,  it  is  caught  and  devoured. 

What  is  the  natural  thought  of  the  Indian?  It  is  that 
the  snake  possesses  a  power  he  does  not  have.  The  snake 
eats,  he  and  his  are  hungry,  therefore,  he  worships  that 
in  the  snake  that  gives  it  this  important  power  in  which 
he  is  deficient. 

Why  should  an  Indian  worship  a  bird  ?  To  the  Indian 
it  is  the  most  natural  thing  in  the  world.  He  wants  to 
cross  a  mighty  canyon,  but  to  do  so,  he  must  either  peril 
his  life  by  climbing  down  steep  walls  and  then  exhaust 
himself  by  climbing  out  again,  or  he  must  "  go  around." 
The  bird  soars  in  the  air  and  in  a  few  minutes  crosses 
the  abyss.  The  Indian  must  spend  days  in  attaining  it. 
Therefore,  he  prays  to  the  bird  or  to  the  power  that  con- 
trols it,  that  it  will  give  to  him  the  superior  power  it 
possesses. 

The  same  with  a  fish.  If  man  tries  to  plunge  head 
first  into  the  water  he  speedily  suffocates  —  drowns. 
The  fish  lives  in  the  water,  hence  has  a  power  man  does 
not  possess.  Therefore  it  is  reasonable  —  to  him  —  that 
he  worship  it. 

Here  is  another  peculiarity  of  Indian  thought  which 
influences  his  religious  acts.  He  finds  the  snake  almost 
invariably  (in  the  desert  regions)  wherever  water  exists. 
The  white  man  reasons  that  the  presence  of  the  snake  is 
accounted  for  by  the  existence  of  the  water.  The  Indian 
reverses  the  process.  The  living  power  of  the  snake  is 
greater  than  that  of  the  water.  He  thinks  it  is  the  pres- 
ence of  the  snake  that  brings  the  water.  Hence  another 
reason  for  his  veneration  of  the  snake,  and  his  fierce 
anger  at  the  white  man,  who,  with  an  entirely  different 
view-point  toward  the  snake,  kills  it  as  quickly  as  he  can. 

In  the  chapter  devoted  to  Indian  Hunting  I  have  pre- 


The  Religion  of  the  Indians 197 

sented  the  foregoing  phases  of  the  Indian's  thought  from 
another  standpoint,  which  equally  affects  his  religious  be- 
lief and  controls  his  ceremonies. 

These  differences  of  view-point  cannot  be  too  strongly 
emphasized  as  they  have  caused  many  misunderstandings, 
some  of  which  have  produced  consequences  of  a  serious 
nature.  Anything  that  keeps  the  races  apart  is  serious 
and  much  to  be  deplored. 

Take,  for  instance,  the  white  man's  idea  that  nudity  is 
obscene  or  at  least  unwise,  and  that  any  open  recognition 
of  sex  relationship  is  decidedly  indelicate  and  vulgar. 

In  view  of  this  belief  the  fact  is  understandable  that 
to  most  white  people, —  even  good,  religious  people,  whose 
religion  teaches  them  to  think  no  evil, —  the  Indian's  frank 
and  totally  unconscious  nudity,  his  phallic  worship,  and 
his  sex  frankness  are  proofs  positive  of  a  degraded  and 
debased  mind ;  that  he  is  unable  to  understand  a  high 
moral  standpoint,  and  is  a  further  proof  of  his  need  for 
the  refining  and  purifying  influences  of  our  civilization 
and  Christianity.  Whereas  the  fact  is  that  the  Indian,  be- 
fore he  was  corrupted  by  degenerates  of  the  white  race, 
was  superior  to  it  in  sex  morality  and  domestic  chastity. 

What  more  simple  than  that  the  Indian,  regarding  sex 
as  common  to  himself,  the  animals  and  birds,  and  desiring 
marriage  and  children,  should  make  it  a  matter  of  re- 
ligious devotion, —  from  his  standpoint, —  known  as 
phallic  worship.  To  him  there  is  no  self-consciousness, 
no  embarrassment,  no  sense  of  shame  in  appealing  to  the 
supposed  spirit  or  power  dwelling  in  physical  resem- 
blances to  sex  organs  found  in  objects  of  nature.  It  is 
exactly  the  same,  to  his  primitive  mind,  as  appealing 
to  the  spirit  residing  in  the  sun,  the  fire,  the  water,  or 
the  fruit-tree. 

As  the  white  man,  however,  imposed  at  least  the  out- 


198    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 


ward  observances  of  his  code  of  morals,  and  secrecy,  or 
reserve,  upon  the  Indian,  without,  in  the  slightest,  chang- 
ing his  mental  attitude,  it  came  about,  in  time,  that  he 
kept  his  thoughts  on  these  things  to  himself.  Yet  those 
who  have  been  admitted  to  his  intimate  confidence  know 
of  the  existence  of  definite  ceremonials  of  pure  phallicism, 
and  of  shrines  where,  to  this  day,  youths  and  maidens 
openly  and  without  shame  or  confusion  (as  far  as  their 
own  people  are  concerned)  go  to  pray  for  a  life  partner, 
who  shall  meet  their  highest  marital  ideals.  Other 
shrines  are  for  married  women  who  pray  for  children,  or 
for  health,  and  many  are  the  tiny  fetiches  and  amulets, 
fashioned  by  nature,  which  they  pick  up,  hoard,  wear, 
and  prize  highly  according  to  the  degree  in  which  their 
holders  suppose  them  to  be  efficacious. 

Hence  the  whisperings,  the  hints,  the  suggestions,  that 
now  and  again  strike  the  ear  or  meet  the  eye  of  the  dis- 
cerning among  the  white  visitors  to  the  Pueblos.  Mys- 
teries surround  the  stranger  on  every  hand.  Here  is 
good  magic,  there  evil  magic.  This  must  not  be  seen, 
and  that  cannot  be  heard,  so  that  the  sensitive  white  per- 
son, in  an  Indian  pueblo,  moves  in  an  atmosphere  of  con- 
stant expectation,  alertness,  or  surprise. 

Many  things  that  a  white  man  cannot  conceive  as  re- 
lated directly  to  religion  have  become  most  important  to 
the  Indian  from  that  standpoint  alone.  Take  their  races 
and  games  or  their  weekly  sweat-bath.  Who  could  see 
anything  religious  in  them?  Yet  the  medicine  men  have 
given  them  a  distinctly  religious  significance.  Why  did 
our  military  leaders,  during  the  early  training  days  of  the 
war,  encourage  our  soldier  boys  to  spend  hours  every  day 
in  playing  games  —  the  most  strenuous,  muscle-wrench- 
ing, daring,  arduous  games  they  could  invent,  devise  or 
suggest?     I  saw  them  at  our  military  camps  running  re- 


The  Religion  of  the  Indians 199 

lay  races,  jumping,  wrestling,  boxing,  riding  on  each 
other's  backs  and  imitating  the  old  tournament  sport  of 
wrestling  on  horseback,  urged  to  it  with  a  fervour  that 
the  unthinking  might  not  understand.  Is  it  not  apparent 
that  it  was  to  strengthen  the  muscles,  bring  up  the  whole 
physical  tone,  and  at  the  same  time  make  them  indifferent 
to  pain  ? —  it's  all  in  the  game. 

There  is  yet  another  idea  connected  with  these  mili- 
tary sports.  Playing  thus  together  in  strenuous  games 
that  test  all  there  is  of  a  man's  physical  powers,  as  well 
as  quickening  his  intellect,  develops  an  esprit  de  corps, 
a  camaraderie,  a  binding  together,  a  pride  in  each  other 
that  stands  an  army  in  good  stead  when  it  comes  to  mak- 
ing charges,  or  doing  other  things  that  require  courage, 
daring  and  skilful  team-work.  Our  military  leaders 
used  their  elementary  knowledge  of  psychology  to  good 
effect,  but  the  Indians  of  New  Mexico  had  put  it  into 
practice  centuries  ago. 

Instead,  however,  of  making  the  motif  for  his  physical 
and  mental  training  a  patriotic  one,  the  Indian  shaman 
went  a  step  further  and  made  it  a  religious  one.  His  peo- 
ple were  no  longer  nomads.  They  had  settled  down  and 
had  begun  to  accumulate  those  desirable  things  that  the 
nomads  coveted. 

These  Apaches,  Navahos,  and  other  nomads  were 
numerous  and  were  bent  on  pillage  at  every  oppor- 
tunity. The  pueblos  had  their  homes  on  mesa  heights, 
reached  only  by  the  scaling  of  precipitous  walls.  Their 
corn-fields  were  in  the  valleys,  often  miles  away.  What 
were  they  to  do  when  their  enemies  swept  down  upon 
them?  Fight?  They  were  not  numerous  enough,  and 
fighting  was  to  be  indulged  in  only  as  a  last  resort. 
Far  better  to  flee,  to  rush  up  the  trails  with  such  speed 
that    their    enemies    could    not    catch    them,    and    then, 


200    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

secure  in  their  almost  inaccessible  heights,  which  were 
easily  defended,  bid  defiance  to  those  who  would  have 
injured  them.  To  do  this,  however,  they  must  be  physi- 
cally strong,  ever  in  the  best  of  training  and  alert,  and 
to  keep  them  so  the  games,  sports,  races  were  devised  and 
made  religious  ceremonies.  It  was  "  the  will  of  the 
gods  "  that  they  should  do  these  things.  "  Those  Above 
had  commanded  it !  " 

Thus  mere  physical  exercises,  games,  and  the  like  came 
to  have  a  profound  religious  significance. 

The  same  with  the  sweat-bath :  Living  an  arduous 
life,  often  sweating  profusely,  sleeping  on  the  ground 
and  thus  constantly  in  contact  with  dirt,  their  habits  of 
life  were  such  as  to  make  it  impossible  to  keep  their 
clothes  clean.  Hence  they  could  not  have  been  guided, 
in  this  year  of  our  Lord,  19 19,  to  a  wiser,  more  practical 
method  of  keeping  their  bodies  healthful  than  by  their 
sweat-bath.  In  reality  this  is  a  combination  of  hot  air 
and  steam.  It  is  generally  taken  in  a  covered  structure 
which  keeps  out  the  cold  air.  Seated  in  a  nude  condition, 
an  attendant  places  red-hot  rocks  within  the  sweat-house. 
This  is  repeated  several  times  until  the  bathers  are  sweat- 
ing profusely.  Then  more  hot  rocks  are  brought  over 
which  water  is  poured.  This  immediately  rises  as  steam 
and  the  bathers  remain  in  this  until  the  bath  is  complete, 
when  they  rub  down  with  mud,  rinse  off  in  clean  water, 
and  then  lie  exposed  to  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun.  It  is 
a  most  stimulating  and  invigorating  treatment  for  white 
people  as  well  as  Indians,  and,  keeping  the  pores  in  good 
condition,  conduces  largely  to  health. 

To  compel  acquiescence  in  this  custom  the  early  day 
shamans  made  of  it  a  religious  ceremonial,  and  to  this 
day  it  is  pretty  rigidly  observed  throughout  the  South- 
west. 


The  Religion  of  the  Indians 201 

The  Indian  of  to-day  is  the  child  of  the  human  race. 
In  his  mental  operations  we  see  how  the  minds  of  the 
more  cultivated  races  worked  when  they  were  first  emerg- 
ing out  of  animalism.  In  their  thoughts,  therefore,  we 
may  see  those  which  —  it  is  not  unreasonable  to  assume 
—  used  to  occupy  the  minds  of  our  own  ancestors. 

Undoubtedly  the  first  thought  that  impressed  the  In- 
dian was  the  great  power  of  Nature  that  surrounded  him, 
limited  him,  mothered  him,  soothed  him,  nourished  him, 
and  yet  that,  at  times,  famished  him,  scourged  him  with 
thunders,  lightnings,  sun-stroke,  sandstorms,  disease,  and 
death.  Unconsciously  he  became  a  Nature  worshiper, 
and  personified  all  the  powers  that  he  saw,  felt  or  imag- 
ined. Here,  then,  we  have  the  basis,  the  beginning,  of 
many  aboriginal  ideas  of  religion,  scores  of  which  persist 
to  this  day,  and  evidences  of  which  are  manifested  in  their 
ceremonials,  prayers,  dances  and  songs. 

We  find  throughout  the  Southwest  this  —  what  might 
be  termed  —  Nature-worship  ever  prevalent.  What 
more  simple  than  that  when  the  world  around  them 
seemed  to  be  unkind,  cruel,  harsh,  they  should  deem  the 
rain,  the  storm,  the  lightning,  the  famine  as  an  expres- 
sion of  the  anger  of  some  Power,  strange,  mysterious, 
hidden,  that  they  must  seek  to  propitiate  ?  Even  the  dog 
fawns  upon  the  hand  that  whips  it,  and  the  tiger,  most 
cruel  of  beasts,  cringes  before  any  one  that  shows  mas- 
tery, hence  why  should  not  primitive  man  fawn  and 
cringe,  and,  as  soon  as  he  had  language,  make  prayers 
and  petitions  to  the  unknown  and  mysterious  Powers  that 
visited  these  unwelcome  and  painful  punishments  upon 
him? 

Next,  perhaps,  came  the  personification  of  the  powers 
of  Nature,  and,  as  some  of  them  were  good  at  some 
times  and  evil  at  others,  most  of  them  were  worshiped 


202     New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

as  dual  personalities,  the  one  to  be  petitioned  for  good, 
and  the  other  to  be  propitiated,  to  be  blinded,  to  be  mis- 
directed —  anything  to  avert  his  attention  so  that  he  could 
visit  no  actual  evil  upon  those  who  prayed.  Here,  then, 
is  the  ground-work  for  the  creation  of  a  pantheon  of 
gods,  big  and  little,  powerful  and  less  powerful,  as  wide 
and  extensive  as  the  imagination  of  the  awakened  ob- 
server could  conceive.  The  result  is  seen  in  the  stupen- 
dous number  of  divinities,  greater  and  lesser,  invented, 
created,  imagined  by  the  Indians  of  this  region,  whether 
Pueblos  or  nomads.  There  are  those  who  laugh  to  scorn 
the  statement  that  these  divinities  are  greater  in  number 
than  the  combined  pantheons  of  ancient  Greece  and  Rome. 
Yet  every  deep  student  of  the  Indians  of  the  Southwest 
knows  that  the  statement  is  one  of  coldest  fact,  rather 
than  of  wild  exaggeration. 

Another  thing  about  these  divinities  must  be  observed. 
Reasoning,  doubtless,  from  the  fact  that  mankind  was 
dual, —  male  and  female, —  the  Indian-  sexualized  every 
divinity  and  every  manifestation  that  had  led  him  to  sup- 
pose there  was  a  divinity  connected  with  it.  Hence  the 
Xorth  was  the  male  part  of  the  earth,  for  from  it  came 
the  cold,  stern  winds,  storm,  rains.  The  South  was  femi- 
nine, because  from  it  came  the  warm,  fructifying,  mother- 
ing winds,  rains  and  other  influences.  The  clouds  were 
male  and  female,  those  which  gave  forth  vivifying  rains 
being  the  latter,  and  those  accompanying  harsh,  stern 
winds  and  bad  weather  being  masculine. 

The  sun  was  the  father,  and  the  earth  the  mother,  the 
lightning  being  the  means  of  communication  and  the 
rains  the  life-giving  fluid. 

In  due  time  the  Indian  observed  that  these  divinities 
operated  uncertainly  —  as  it  were.  There  was  no  assur- 
ance that  the  rains  would  come  at  the  time  they  generally 


The  Religion  of  the  Indians  203 


came.  Such  could  be  only  the  result  of  the  caprice,  the 
whim,  of  the  gods,  or  because  they  were  angry.  Light- 
ning sometimes  struck  the  noblest  man,  or  most  beauti- 
ful woman,  or  the  dearest  child  of  the  tribe.  Caprice, 
whim,  anger! 

Then  men  arose  among  them  who  asserted  they  had 
power  to  change  this  caprice,  alter  the  whim,  deflect  the 
anger.  They  had  discovered  some  simple  fact  or  law 
unknown  to  their  fellows.  They  were  able  by  some  mys- 
tic power  within  themselves  to  create  "  good  "  medicine 
and  to  dispel  "  bad  "  medicine.  From  this  sprang  up  a 
world  of  ceremonials  that  fairly  bewilder  and  astound 
the  white  man  when  he  realizes  their  number,  their  lengthy 
duration  and  their  characteristics.  When  we  speak  of 
the  white  race,  of  any  nation  as  being  religious,  if  by  that 
we  refer  to  their  ritualistic  manifestations  in  ceremonial 
and  outward  worship,  they  are  not  in  the  same  class  with 
most  of  the  Indians  of  the  Southwest.  The  pueblo  of 
Zuni,  for  instance,  has  a  number  of  religious  ceremonials 
in  the  winter  and  an  equal  number  in  the  summer,  that 
amaze  the  ordinary  white  man.  Some  of  these  are  be- 
ginning now  to  attract  large  numbers  of  visitors,  and  one 
of  them  will  be  found  described  in  the  chapter  dealing 
with  Zuni.  So  with  all  the  Pueblos.  But  even  the 
nomad  Xavahos  have  their  wealth  of  ceremonies,  in  the 
performance  of  some  of  which,  even  yet,  white  people, 
who  are  not  informed,  refuse  to  believe. 

Merely  to  give  the  uninitiated  a  faint  idea  of  these 
ceremonials  and  the  length  of  time  required  to  perform 
them,  here  is  presented  a  list  of  Zuni  brotherhoods  and 
their  ceremonials,  with  a  suggestion  as  to  the  beneficial 
results  they  are  expected  to  secure.  One  could  write  a 
large  book  describing  the  origin  of  these  brotherhoods 
or  "  esoteric  fraternities,"  as  Mrs.  Stevenson  terms  them. 


204    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

The  oldest  fraternity  is  the  Shiwannakwe,  whose 
duties  are  to  pray,  sing  and  dance  for  rain.  The  mem- 
bership of  this  society, —  as  are  they  all  —  was  originally 
formed  by  the  "  Divine  Ones,"  and  dances,  songs,  and 
esoteric  ceremonials, —  which  are  known  to  none  other  of 
the  tribe  save  the  initiated  —  were  communicated  by  them 
and  are  supposed  to  be  most  potent  in  producing  the 
fructifying  (or  female)  rain. 

The  next  to  be  organized  by  the  "  Divine  Ones  "  was 
the  Newekwe,  and  ultimately  these  and  the  first  organized 
(the  Shiwannakwe)  were  instructed  in  all  the  songs  and 
secrets  of  the  Mystery  Medicine.  The  next  fraternity 
was  the  Saniakiakzve,  or  Hunters,  those  who  have  charge 
over  the  hunting  as  explained  in  the  chapter  devoted  to 
that  subject. 

Then  came  the  Hlannakwe,  the  Great  Fire  Fraternity, 
the  members  of  which  can  eat  large  coals  of  fire,  and 
a  few  of  whom  were  initiated  into  the  mysteries  of  sword 
swallowing  —  at  which  they  are  great  adepts  to  this  day. 
These  latter  soon  developed  into  an  organization  of  their 
own  —  the  Hlewekwe  —  and  they  possess  wonderful 
mystery  medicine. 

Then  another  fraternity  was  organized  of  those  who 
were  taught  to  play  with,  and  control,  fire,  but  not  to 
eat  it,  and  they  were  called  the  Uhuhukwe. 

Next  came  the  Halokwe  (sometimes  called  the  Achiya 
or  Stone  Knife)  fraternity,  who  were  initiated  into  the 
divine  secrets  of  healing  disease  caused  by  the  angry 
ants  (skin  diseases)  and  those  caused  by  the  witchcraft 
of  men.  Think  of  the  mental  processes  that  attribute  all 
skin  diseases  to  angry  ants ! 

The  explanation  they  give  of  their  alternative  name 
of  "  Stone  Knife  "  is  that  a  stone  knife  once  descended 
from   "  Those   Above  "   into  their  ceremonial   chamber, 


The  Religion  of  the  Indians 205 

clearly  indicating  that  a  fraternity  that  used  this  knife 
in  its  initiations  should  be  organized. 

All  these  fraternities  were  initiated  into  the  use  of 
tablet  altars,  with  all  their  complicated  phenomena,  and 
the  sand,  or  dry,  paintings. 

These  sand-paintings  (or  mosaics,  perhaps,  is  the  bet- 
ter term)  are  made  in  a  most  skilful  and  artistic  manner 
by  the  artist  priests  of  the  different  fraternities.  Each 
has  its  own  designs  and  their  corresponding  symbolism, 
which,  for  an  outsider  to  understand,  is  a  task  for  many 
months,  even  with  such  information  as  has  already  been 
gained  by  such  investigators  as  Cushing,  Fewkes,  Steven- 
son, Hodge  and  others.  And,  of  course,  only  those  es- 
pecially trusted  and  favoured  by  the  priests  could  ever 
hope  to  gain  the  least  inkling  of  these  ceremonials,  or 
be  allowed  to  see  the  altars,  sand-paintings,  fetiches,  and 
other  sacred  appliances  used  therein.  Many  a  bold  and 
self-appreciative  visitor  to  the  Pueblos  —  Zuni  and  else- 
where —  has  found  his  conceit  and  confidence  speedily 
evaporating  in  the  presence  of  the  stern  dignity  of  the 
priests  who  could  neither  be  bought,  cajoled  or  intimi- 
dated to  allow  even  these  self-important  personages  to 
witness  their  sacred  mysteries. 

One  of  the  later  and  important  fraternities  is  said  to 
have  originated  by  the  appearance  of  one  of  the  "  Divine 
Ones,"  with  his  warriors,  at  the  home  of  a  member  of 
the  Poyikwe  (Chaparral  Cock)  Clan.  Hitherto  a  god 
had  never  appeared  before  a  human  without  his  mask,  but 
on  this  occasion  his  features  were  clearly  seen.  He  told 
that  they  had  come  from  the  underworld,  but  were  go- 
ing to  stay  for  a  short  time  at  Chipia  (a  place  near  by). 

Trembling  with  excitement  the  man  so  honoured  by 
the  god,  informed  the  Sun  Priest  early  the  next  morn- 
ing, and  this  led  this  officer  to  go  to  Chipia  to  interview 


206    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

the  Divine  One.  He  then  invited  the  god,  with  his  five 
divine  associates,  to  visit  Halona  (one  of  the  villages 
of  Zuni),  which  they  did,  wearing  their  masks.  At  this 
time  they  taught  the  man  they  had  first  visited  all  the 
secrets  of  their  mystery  medicine,  with  its  potent  for  the 
cure  of  all  convulsions  and  cramps  in  the  limbs,  and  also 
the  accompanying  songs  which  came  direct  from  the 
lips  of  the  Sun  Father.  This  fraternity  is  the  Shu- 
maakwe.  On  this  visit  (it  must  be  noted)  the  gods  left 
their  masks,  which  are  used  in  the  ceremonials  to  this 
day  by  those  priests  who  personate  the  visiting  divini- 
ties. 

The  Great  Fire  Fraternity  has  power  to  heal  swellings 
in  the  throat,  body  or  limbs.  The  initiates  were  taught 
by  the  three  gods,  who  left  their  masks  for  future  use. 

In  addition  there  is  the  Little  Fire  Fraternity  (Matke 
Sannakwe),  the  Rattlesnake,  Cactus,  Mythologic,  Games 
(Showekwe) ,  and  Struck-by-Lightning  fraternities. 

One  of  the  most  powerful  of  all  the  fraternities  is  that 
of  the  Order  of  the  Sacred  Bozv.  This  was  organized 
by  the  Gods  of  War,  and  is  to-day  the  most  powerful  of 
all  Zuni  organizations.  It  is  the  one  to  which  Lieut. 
Frank  H.  Cushing  succeeded  in  gaining  admisson,  and 
which  led  to  his  speedily  gaining  the  marvelous  intimacy 
with  their  secret  customs,  ceremonials  and  myths,  which, 
so  entrancingly,  he  gave  to  the  world.  It  was  long  pre- 
sided over  by  Naiuchi,  that  strong,  inflexible,  incorrupt- 
ible Indian,  a  true  leader,  statesman,  philospher  and 
friend,  who  was  the  strangest  mixture  of  modern  wisdom 
and  ancient,  deep-rooted  superstition. 

While  I  have  thus  barely  enumerated  the  fraternities 
of  the  Zunis,  I  have  given  but  the  merest  suggestion  of  a 
glimpse  at  the  complicated  mythology  they  incorporate, 
the  tradition  and  history  they  enshrine,  the  origin  and 


PAHOS,   OR    PRAYER    STICKS. 


The  Religion  of  the  Indians  207 


beauty  of  their  songs,  and  the  infinite  variety  of  their 
dances  and  ceremonials.  Of  their  masks  alone  one  might 
write  enough  to  fill  a  book  as  large  as  this,  and,  simply 
to  describe,  in  ordinary  newspaper-reporter  fashion,  their 
open  air  ceremonials  would  fill  another. 

Then,  what  about  their  altars,  their  various  fetiches 
—  not  connected  with  hunting, —  of  their  mill  —  which, 
to  each  organization,  is  as  important  and  sacred  as  is 
the  Cross  to  the  Christians, —  their  clowns  or  Delight- 
makers  (as  Bandelier  so  appropriately  called  them)  ? 

Then  the  symbolism  connected  with  it  all  —  who  can 
absorb  it,  or  realize  it?  Everything  is  symbolized. 
Soap-suds  are  made  in  a  bowl  of  water  to  represent  snow- 
clouds,  while  the  priest  prays  for  cold  rains  and  snows. 
Downy  feathers  from  the  eagle's  breast  are  used  by  the 
scores  of  thousands  in  their  prayers  to  symbolize  that,  as 
the  eagle  soars  (by  means  of  these  feathers),  into  the 
very  eye  of  the  Sun,  so  may  their  prayers  ascend  to  the 
secret  precincts  of  the  Divine  Ones  —  Those  Above. 

Upon  the  symbolism  of  pollen,  alone,  one  might  write 
a  volume.  The  ritual  of  these  people  calls  for  the  pollen 
of  a  score,  a  hundred,  several  hundred,  varieties  of  plants 
and  flowers;  and  it  is  not  enough  merely  to  have  this 
pollen.  It  must  be  gathered  at  such  and  such  a  time,  un- 
der such  and  such  favourable  conditions.  The  pollen  is 
the  essential  fructifier  of  the  flower  or  fruit  or  grain. 
Without  it  there  is  no  increase.  It  is  the  symbol,  there- 
fore, of  all  fructification,  and  is  used  everywhere  and 
at  all  times  in  Pueblo,  Navaho  and  Apache  ceremo- 
nials. 

Symbolism  plays  a  large  part  in  the  Indian's  prayers. 
He  never  prays  but  he  first  of  all  plants  around  himself, 
or  on  his  altar,  or  before  his  shrine,  a  number  of  feath- 
ered sticks,  called  pahos.     As  the  birds  that  wear  the 


208     New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

feathers  soar  to  the  highest  heavens,  so  may  their  petitions 
be  feathered  and  winged  to  the  ears  of  the  gods. 

At  puberty  the  Hopi  maidens  are  required  to  dress  up 
their  hair  in  imitation  of  the  squash  blossom.  This  is 
their  symbol  of  maidenhood  and  purity,  and  the  very 
fact  that  the  hair  is  dressed  in  this  fashion  aids  in  bring- 
ing the  pure  thoughts  into  the  maiden's  mind  that  the 
blossom  symbolizes.  Still  further,  the  Indian  believes 
that  the  symbol  affects  the  thing  symbolized.  Cushing 
refers  to  this  fact  in  connection  with  the  Zuni  pottery- 
maker.  One  of  the  forms  given  to  water  bottles  is  that 
of  the  female  breasts.  During  the  manipulation  of  the 
clay  a  tiny  opening  is  kept  in  the  nipples,  lest  the  closing  of 
them  should  forever  dry  up  the  maternal  fount  of  the 
pottery-maker,  and  thus  —  by  natural  inference  —  pre- 
vent her  enjoying  the  blessings  of  maternity.  To  the 
maiden,  yet  unmarried,  this  would  be  a  calamity  un- 
speakable, as  every  Zuni  man  looks  for,  expects  and 
eagerly  desires  children,  and  therefore,  this  would  render 
her  as  a  married  woman  less  desirable  to  her  husband. 

Yet,  it  is  evident,  the  holes  in  the  nipples  cannot  be  al- 
lowed to  remain  in  the  water  bottle.  Before  it  is  com- 
pleted they  must  be  closed.  When  the  vessel  is  prac- 
tically finished  the  potter  prepares  a  small  pellet  of  clay, 
turns  away  her  head,  begins  to  talk,  sing,  or  pray,  and 
thus,  while  distracting  the  attention  of  the  divinity  that 
controls  the  clay,  perhaps  resides  in  it,  she  closes  up  the 
apertures. 

I  found  the  same  idea  —  the  symbol  affecting  the  thing 
symbolized  —  among  the  Navahos.  Long  ago  I  learned 
that  the  design  of  their  so-called  wedding-basket,  repre- 
sented the  mountains  and  valleys  of  the  upper  world,  the 
mountains  and  valleys  of  the  lower  or  under  world,  and 
the  red  earth  between.     In  all  these  baskets  there  is  an 


The  Religion  of  the  Indians 209 

opening  from  the  lower  to  the  upper  world.  One  day 
it  was  explained  to  me  by  a  Shaman  that  all  unborn  spirits 
dwelt  in  the  under  world,  and  that  when  a  child  was  born, 
the  parents  gave  to  it  its  body,  but  the  spirit  came  to  it 
through  this  opening, —  representing  Shi-pa-pu  —  and 
joined  the  body  in  some  unseen  and  mysterious  fashion. 
Having  had  some  experiences  in  testing  the  idea  above 
formulated  and  wishing  to  experiment  further,  I  deter- 
mined to  endeavour  to  bribe  an  Indian  weaver  to  make 
me  a  wedding  basket  which,  while  in  every  other  respect, 
of  the  conventional  design,  should  leave  out  the  "  Shipapu 
opening." 

In  those  days  the  practical  value  of  one  of  these  baskets 
on  the  Navaho  reservation  was  about  $4.  I  had  al- 
ready convinced  myself  that  her  reasoning  would  be  that 
if  she  were  to  make  me  a  basket,  leaving  out  that  open- 
ing, she  conceived  that  this  would  make  it  impossible, 
should  she  again  become  a  mother,  for  her  child  to  have 
a  soul.  It  was  her  real  belief  in  this  idea  that  I  now 
wished  to  test.  Accordingly  I  asked  her  to  make  me  the 
basket,  leaving  out  the  opening,  and  offered  her  $8  in- 
stead of  $4,  laying  out  bright  new  silver  dollars  before 
her  to  enforce  my  request.  With  a  curt  shake  of  the 
head  she  refused,  and  paid  no  attention  to  my  urging. 
Opening  my  buckskin  purse  I  took  out  another  $8,  and 
spread  them  out  temptingly  before  her,  only  to  receive 
the  same  curt  refusal.  And  I  doubled  the  amount  again, 
making  it  $32,  and  then  yet  again,  making  it  $64,  and 
still  again,  making  it  $128,  and  finally  spread  out  the 
whole  of  the  $300  with  which  I  had  provided  myself  be- 
fore I  left  home  for  the  purpose.  But,  while  she  eyed 
the  money  longingly  and  tears  came  into  her  eyes  as  she 
spoke,  she  positively  refused  my  request,  saying  that  she 
daren't  thus  oppose  the  will  of  the  gods. 


210    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

To  the  untrained  Protestant  the  symbolic  ritual  of  the 
Catholic  Church  is  complex  and  difficult  to  understand, 
yet  an  intelligent  person  can  grasp  its  significance  within 
a  very  short  time.  Half  a  lifetime  is  required  ere  one 
grasps  the  full  significance  of  Pueblo  and  other  Indian 
symbolism. 

To  return  now  to  the  fraternities.  Each  of  them  has 
its  own  ceremonies  which  last  from  four  to  nine  days,  at 
the  winter  and  summer  solstices,  or  on  special  occasions 
when  the  wealthy  sick  desire  that  they  be  initiated  on  their 
behalf. 

A  book  might  be  written  upon  the  etiquette  observed 
at  all  the  ceremonies.  We  talk  of  the  ceremoniousness  of 
the  Japanese  and  other  orientals.  They  can  learn  of  our 
Pueblo  Indians.  For  instance,  here  is  one  paragraph 
from  Mrs.  Stevenson's  monograph,  which  barely  hints  at 
the  scope  of  this  interesting  subject: 

"  The  high-necked  and  long-sleeved  cotton  garment  is 
discarded  by  the  women  for  ceremonials,  and  their  necks 
and  arms  are  bare.  Men  wear  their  cotton  shirts  and 
trousers  in  the  ceremonial  chamber,  but  afterward  dis- 
card them,  wearing,  except  on  rare  occasions,  only  a 
woven  breechcloth  in  the  dances.  The  moccasins  of  both 
sexes  are  always  removed  on  entering  the  chamber.  The 
strictest  etiquette  is  observed  in  these  ceremonials.  No 
one  enters  the  chamber  without  giving  and  receiving  a 
greeting  of  welcome,  the  newcomer  being  asked  to  be 
seated.  No  one  is  allowed  to  fall  asleep  in  the  ceremonial 
chamber  except  such  members  as  are  held  almost  sacred 
on  account  of  their  extreme  age.  The  offender  is  at 
once  touched  in  no  gentle  manner  by  some  member. 
Pregnant  women  and  young  children  are  held  as  severely 
to  account  as  the  others.  After  the  close  of  the  ceremo- 
nial the  head  of  each  member  is  washed  in  yucca  suds. 


The  Religion  of  the  Indians 211 

Continence  is  observed  during  the  ceremonials  and  the 
four  days  following,  for  all  carnal  thoughts  must  be  dis- 
pensed with  at  this  season." 

Every  fraternity  has  its  own  cycle  of  songs.  No  white 
person  has  yet  even  made  the  attempt  to  gather  all  these 
songs,  yet  their  sweet  poetic  beauty,  and  the  enshrined 
mythology,  history,  tradition  and  legend,  are  attested  by 
the  few  specimens  presented  in  the  chapter  on  music. 

Naturally,  it  is  to  the  priesthood  of  these  esoteric  fra- 
ternities that  the  Indian  looks  for  protection  from  all  evil 
and  the  calling  upon  him  of  all  good.  In  these  priest- 
hoods we  find  the  "  Shamans,"  the  medicine-men,  in 
whom  every  Indian  pins  his  faith.  Occasionally,  how- 
ever, a  man  is  found  who  possesses  extraordinary  power. 
He  has  been  able  to  heal  some  dangerously  sick  man,  or 
bring  a  well-known  woman  of  influence  —  for  the  Indians 
know  the  steps  and  stages  of  caste  and  influence,  even  as 
we  do  —  through  a  dangerous  child-birth.  Then,  even 
as  with  ourselves,  every  one  flocks  to  him.  His  "  medi- 
cine "  is  powerful  for  good,  and  is  unceasingly  called  for. 
There  is  a  converse  side,  however,  to  this  popularity.  It 
is  almost  a  natural  outcome,  that  when  things  go  severely 
wrong  with  any  one,  or  anything,  it  is  owing  to  "  bad 
medicine."  As  no  medicine  man  would  be  so  foolish 
as  to  indulge  in  the  practice  of  creating  or  making  bad 
medicine,  except  for  purposes  of  revenge,  or  to  gratify 
some  evil  desire,  the  evil  magic-maker  becomes  known  as 
a  wizard  or  witch,  to  be  feared  and  shunned,  and  if  pos- 
sible to  be  punished  and  slain.  I  have  been  present  at 
half  a  dozen  or  more  trials  for  witchcraft  in  New  Mexico, 
and  personally  know  those  who  have  been  cruelly  whipped 
and  hung  up  by  the  thumbs  until  they  were  almost  dead, 
because  of  their  alleged  evil  practices  along  this  line. 
(See  the  chapter  devoted  to  this  subject.) 


212    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

This  same  difficulty  of  compelling  the  powers  of  Na- 
ture always  to  do  the  desired  and  desirable  things  —  from 
the  Indians'  standpoint  —  makes  the  position  of  the  priest 
of  any  one  of  the  Clans  no  sinecure. 

These  men  are  expected  to  be  not  only  pure  and  clean 
in  body,  but  also  in  heart,  and  any  failure  of  the  Clan 
ceremonies  to  produce  the  required  and  expected  results  is 
sure  to  lead  to  the  censure  or  even  expulsion  of  the  priest 
from  his  office.  For  instance,  in  the  clan  of  the  Ashi- 
wanni,  or  Rain  Priesthood  of  the  Zunis,  the  priest  of  the 
Zenith,  some  years  ago,  was  denounced  because  of  the 
droughts  and  consequent  failure  of  crops.  He  was  im- 
peached, and  after  long  days  and  nights  of  consultation 
was  removed,  and  a  young  man  selected  to  fill  his  place. 
When  the  messenger  arrived  at  the  youth's  home,  though 
he  was  personally  anxious  to  accept  the  honoured  posi- 
tion, his  mother  wept  so  bitterly  about  it,  fearful  lest  he 
should  be  accused  of  being  wicked  or  a  witch,  if  the  rains 
failed  to  come  and  the  crops  failed  for  a  season,  that  he 
refused  to  accept. 

Then,  asks  the  white,  skeptical  outsider,  who,  natu- 
rally, laughs  at  all  the  pretentions  to  power  of  the  Sha- 
mans, what  becomes  of  a  medicine  man  when  he  loses 
his  popularity  or  his  power? 

With  the  Indian,  as  well  as  with  ourselves,  wit,  wisdom, 
or  even  craft  and  cunning,  play  their  part.  If  your  son 
dies  under  the  hand  of  an  eminent  physician  you  do  not 
lose  faith  in  him  if  he  can  convince  you  that  the  death  was 
inevitable,  or  that  he  did  more  than  any  one  else  could 
have  done  under  the  circumstances. 

Many  a  great  surgeon  has  performed  a  "  successful  " 
operation,  even  though  the  patient  has  died,  and  the  sor- 
rowing relatives  have  been  contented,  and  have  increased 
their  reverence  for  the  wonderfully  competent  surgeon 


The  Religion  of  the  Indians  213 

who  performed  so  marvelously  successful  an  operation 
upon  their  loved  one. 

Now,  does  the  simple-minded  white  man  assume  for 
one  moment  that  an  Indian  cannot  play  this  game  as  well 
as  he?  He  may  think  again,  and  more  wisely.  The  In- 
dian thaumaturgist  is  just  as  adept  as  —  and  often  more 
so  than  —  his  white  brother,  in  all  the  arts  of  "  covering 
up  "  the  failures  of  his  wonder-working. 

Yet  I  would  not  say  he  was  a  humbug,  a  fraud,  any 
more  than  I  would  say  of  the  successfully  operating 
surgeon  (whose  patient  died),  that  he  was  a  humbug,  a 
fraud,  or  that  the  practicing  physician  who  continues, 
year  after  year,  to  treat  and  take  the  money  of  a  rich 
patient  without  curing  him,  was  a  humbug,  a  fraud. 
Human  nature  is  much  the  same,  for,  as  has  already  been 
stated,  the  Indian's  mind  is  the  child  mind  of  the  race, 
and  the  children  are  often  more  crafty  and  cunning  (in 
some  ways)  than  their  elders. 

To  return,  now,  to  the  divinities  or  powers.  To  retain 
the  good  will  of  the  beneficent  powers,  and  control  or 
propitiate  those  that  are  hostile,  another  method  sprang 
into  existence.  This  is  known  to  us  as  the  taboo.  It  con- 
sists in  the  strict  observance  of  a  great  number  of  pre- 
scriptions. One  must  eat  only  certain  foods  at  certain 
times,  and  never  of  the  animal  from  which  their  family 
name  was  taken.  Hence  among  the  Zunis  there  are  those 
who  may  never,  under  any  circumstances,  eat  of  the  flesh 
of  the  badger,  bear,  coyote,  sandhill-crane,  frog,  road- 
runner,  turkey,  deer  or  antelope.  To  many  Indians  all 
hog  meat  is  taboo.  To  the  Navahos  fish,  ducks,  snake 
and  rabbit  are  all  taboo,  and  Matthews  tells  of  a  white 
woman,  at  Fort  Defiance,  who,  for  mischief,  emptied  a 
pan  of  water  in  which  fish  had  been  soaking  over  a 
young  Navaho.     He  changed  all  his  clothes,  put  them  to 


214    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

soak,  and  then  many  times  bathed  himself  before  he  felt 
fully  purified.  Another  Navaho  taboo  is  the  sight  of 
a  man's  mother-in-law,  and  many  an  amusing  sight  has 
been  afforded  a  visitor  —  who  had  been  put  wise  —  when 
an  attempt  was  made  to  bring  son  and  mother-in-law  to- 
gether. 

The  Navahos  also  taboo  a  hogan  (or  house)  in  which 
a  death  has  occurred.  It  is  either  fired  or  allowed 
to  go  to  ruin,  and  twenty-five  years  ago  there  were  hun- 
dreds of  these  homes  which  death  had  compelled  the 
families  to  abandon.  Neither  will  a  Navaho,  though  it 
be  the  coldest-below-zero  weather,  and  no  other  wood  is 
available,  touch  a  piece  of  wood  from  one  of  these 
death-cursed  hogans,  and  should  the  white  man,  disre- 
garding the  taboo,  build  his  fire  of  it,  he  will  refuse  to 
eat  or  drink  anything  cooked  on  the  fire,  and  will  re- 
move himself  as  far  as  possible  from  its  heat  and  light. 

Until  commercialism  crept  in,  and  the  traders  among 
the  Indians  became  careless  of  their  religious  ideas  by 
contact  with  the  whites,  there  were  certain  colours  that 
were  taboo,  and  one  never  saw  them  used  in  any  kind  of 
an  Indian  made  blanket,  robe,  sash,  or  garter. 

In  certain  Zuni  ceremonies  there  are  taboos  against 
sweeping  out  the  house  for  a  certain  period,  and  no  arti- 
ficial light  must  be  made,  not  even  that  of  a  burning 
cigarette,  and  page  after  page  might  be  written  merely 
enumerating  the  various  taboos. 

Another  mode  of  influencing  the  gods  was  by  fasting 
and  continence.  Few  white  men  know  to  what  extent  the 
Indians  fast.  Sometimes  a  fast  will  be  merely  an  absten- 
tion from  animal  food,  or  grease,  or  corn,  and  again  the 
fast  will  be  absolute,  lasting  for  from  one  to  nine  days, 
according  to  the  object  to  be  attained. 

Every  child  is  taught  to  fast,  and  I  have  heard  children 


MANUELITO,  THE  LAST  GREAT   NAVAHO  CHIEF. 


The  Religion  of  the  Indians  215 

of  four  and  five  years  of  age  challenged  to  a  day's,  two 
days',  three,  four  and  even  five  days',  fast,  by  an  uncle 
or  elder  cousin,  and  have  watched  the  youngster  after 
he  had  accepted.  Nothing  could  tempt  him  to  eat  (or 
drink,  if  drinking  was  also  included). 

There  is  another  phase  to  this  fasting  which  should 
not  be  overlooked.  Many  a  time  food  is  scarce  with 
the  Indians  and  it  is  good  for  them  to  know  that  fasting, 
if  not  too  long  continued,  will  not  seriously  harm  them. 
Again,  often  in  their  long  journeys,  accidents,  storms, 
cloud-bursts  or  other  adverse  conditions  delay  them,  or  in 
some  way  deprive  them  of  food.  Their  fasting  has 
taught  them  that  even  though  they  do  not  eat  for  a 
week,  two  weeks,  or  even  three  weeks,  no  serious  con- 
sequences will  ensue.  I  have  been  with  them  under 
these  conditions  and  I  can  aver  with  truth  that  I  have 
never  even  heard  a  complaint,  except,  perhaps,  some 
whimsical  or  humorous  comment,  upon  the  absence  of 
their  wanted  food. 

In  many  ceremonies  fasting  is  enjoined  for  from  four 
to  nine  days,  and  the  fasters  dance  and  sing,  day  and 
night,  with  an  energy  that  seems  tireless,  so  that  no  out- 
sider would  ever  dream  that  they  were  being  deprived  of 
their  usual  sustenance. 

Continence  is  also  demanded  under  many  circum- 
stances, lasting  for  days  or  even  months  at  a  time,  and 
dire,  indeed,  are  the  consequences,  if  a  man  or  woman 
fails  in  this  regard. 

As  has  already  been  stated,  the  healing  of  disease  and 
securing  protection  from  its  ravages  are  sought  from 
the  Superior  Powers  by  the  intervention  of  the  shaman. 
Invocations,  incantations,  dances,  songs,  are  performed 
for  days  at  a  time  with  these  purposes  in  view.  Disease  is 
supposedly  caused  in  two  ways ;  either  by  the  presence  of 


216    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

some  foreign  object  in  the  body,  or  by  the  absence  of 
the  spirit  from  its  body. 

Again  and  again  have  I  been  present  when  a  shaman 
has  announced  that  the  disease  from  which  a  patient  was 
suffering  was  some  living  creature  in  the  body  of  the 
patient,  which  would  produce  death  unless  removed.  A 
man  had  sciatic  pains;  the  shaman  came,  and,  after 
sucking  the  body  of  the  patient,  took  a  lizard  from  his 
mouth,  which,  of  course,  was  proof  positive  that  it  was 
the  cause  of  the  trouble.  Here  are  other  cases :  A  preg- 
nant woman  suffering  from  severe  pains  on  the  right 
side  of  her  abdomen  had  two  worms  taken  from  the  spot. 
The  shaman  assured  her  the  worms  would  have  eaten  the 
child  and  caused  its  death.  An  old  man  had  rheumatic 
pains  in  his  back.  A  frog  was  taken  out  by  sucking. 
Horned  toads,  pieces  of  stone  and  wood,  yards  of  yarn, 
bits  of  old  cloth,  etc.,  have  been  taken  out  (!)  in  my  pres- 
ence, the  shaman  making  great  pretense  at  times  that  he 
was  finding  it  exceedingly  difficult  to  get  the  object  re- 
leased. He  generally  takes  it  from  his  mouth  into  his 
clenched  hand  and  then  resolutely  throws  it  away,  or 
casts  it  into  the  fire. 

On  one  occasion  a  shaman  showed  me  an  old  feather 
duster  which  had  been  given  to  him  on  one  of  his  visits 
to  a  white  settlement.  He  assured  me,  with  sundry 
chuckles,  that  when  his  patients  suffered  from  any  form 
of  stomach  or  intestinal  trouble  he  made  them  close  their 
eyes,  open  their  mouths  and  swallow  the  duster  —  stick, 
feathers  and  all  —  and  as  it  came  through  the  body  it 
swept  away  all  the  evil  that  was  causing  their  trouble, 

It  must  not  be  assumed,  however,  from  this  frank 
avowal  of  the  humbug  and  deliberate  deceit  connected 
with  some  of  their  proceedings,  that  everything  they  do 
is  of  this  character.     To  come  to  this  conclusion  would 


The  Religion  of  the  Indians  217 

be  unjust  and  contrary  to  fact.  Some  of  the  shamans 
have  considerable  skill  as  bone-setters.  They  are  natural 
surgeons.  They  also  know  how  to  manipulate  the  mus- 
cles, bones,  etc.,  in  a  rude  and  primitive  massage  and 
osteopathy  that  often  relieves  pain.  They  have  a  wide 
knowledge  of  the  properties  of  many  plants,  flowers, 
shrubs  and  herbs,  which  they  use  to  good  advantage, 
though  here,  it  must  be  confessed,  their  practice  often  is 
empirical,  often  not  justified  by  experience,  and  befogged 
by  their  rude  analogies  and  symbolism.  For  instance, 
they  assume  that  because  the  milk  weed  exudes  a  milk- 
like secretion,  it  must  be  good  as  a  medicine  for  a  nursing 
mother.  This  kind  of  symbolism  meets  one  on  every 
hand. 

Of  course  in  dealing  with  the  absence  of  a  sick  person's 
soul  from  his  body  that  can  be  healed  only  by  dances, 
songs,  smokes,  prayers,  incantations  and  mystery  rites. 
This  is  a  vast  subject,  far  too  vast  for  treatment  here, 
and  those  interested  in  it  must  make  a  special  study  of  it. 

Shamanism  is  ofttimes  gained  by  acquiring  the 
power  of  one  of  the  divinities — for  good  or  evil  —  by 
securing  him  as  a  personal  protector.  This  was  no  small 
task,  and  he  who  would  gain  such  power  must  be  brave 
and  self-denying.  While  the  following  was  written  by 
Jeremiah  Curtin  in  his  Creation  Myths  of  Primitive 
America,  of  certain  California  tribes,  it  applies,  almost 
exactly,  to  the  procedure  of  the  Indians  of  the  South- 
west. 

"  The  most  important  question  of  all  in  Indian  life  was 
communication  with  divinity,  intercourse  with  the  spirit 
of  divine  personages.  No  man  could  communicate  with 
these  unless  the  man  to  whom  they  chose  to  manifest 
themselves.  There  were  certain  things  which  a  man  had 
to  do  to  obtain  communication  with  divinity  and  receive 


218    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

a  promise  of  assistance ;  but  it  was  only  the  elect,  the  right 
person,  the  fit  one,  who  obtained  the  desired  favour.  For 
instance,  twenty  men  might  go  to  the  mountain  place, 
and  observe  every  rule  carefully,  but  only  one  man  be 
favoured  with  a  vision,  only  one  become  a  seer.  Twenty 
others  might  go  to  the  mountain  place,  and  not  one  be  ac- 
counted worthy  to  behold  a  spirit;  a  third  twenty  might 
go,  and  two  or  three  of  them  be  chosen.  No  man  could 
tell  beforehand  what  success  or  failure  might  await  him. 
The  general  method  at  present  is  the  following,  the  same 
as  in  the  old  time  :  — 

"  Soon  after  puberty,  and  in  every  case  before  marriage 
or  acquaintance  with  woman,  the  youth  or  young  man 
who  hopes  to  become  a  doctor  goes  to  a  sacred  mountain 
pond  or  spring,  where  he  drinks  water  and  bathes.  After 
he  has  bathed  and  dressed,  he  speaks  to  the  spirits,  he 
prays  them  to  come  to  him,  to  give  him  knowledge,  to 
grant  their  assistance.  The  young  man  takes  no  food, 
no  nourishment  of  any  sort,  fasts,  as  he  is  able,  seven 
days  and  nights,  sometimes  longer.  All  this  time  he  is 
allowed  no  drink  except  water.  He  sleeps  as  little  as 
possible.  If  spirits  come  to  him,  he  has  visions,  he  re- 
ceives power  and  favour.  A  number  of  spirits  may  visit 
a  man  one  after  another,  and  promise  him  aid  and  co- 
operation. The  eagle  spirit  may  come,  the  spirit  of  the 
elk  or  the  salmon, —  any  spirit  that  likes  the  man.  The 
spirit  says  in  substance,  '  Whenever  you  call  my  name  I 
will  come,  I  will  give  my  power  to  assist  you.'  After 
one  spirit  has  gone,  another  may  appear,  and  another.  A 
man  is  not  free  to  refuse  the  offers  of  spirits,  he  must 
receive  all  those  who  come  to  him.  As  there  are  peculiar 
observances  connected  with  each  spirit,  the  doctor  who 
is  assisted  by  many  is  hampered  much  in  his  method  of 
living.     There  are  spirits  which  do  not  like  buckskin ; 


The  Religion  of  the  Indians  219 

the  man  to  whom  they  come  must  never  wear  buckskin. 
If  a  man  eats  food  repugnant  to  his  spirit,  the  spirit  will 
kill  him.  As  each  spirit  has  its  favourite  food,  and  there 
are  other  kinds  which  to  it  are  distasteful,  we  can  un- 
derstand easily  that  the  doctor  who  has  ten  spirits  or 
twenty  (and  there  are  some  who  have  thirty)  to  aid 
him  is  limited  in  his  manner  of  living.  Greatness  has  its 
price  at  all  times ;  power  must  be  paid  for  in  every  place. 
Those  for  whom  the  spirits  have  no  regard,  and  they 
are  the  majority,  return  home  without  visions  or  hope 
of  assistance;  the  spirits  are  able  to  look  through  all  per- 
sons directly,  and  straightway  they  see  what  a  man  is. 
They  find  most  people  unsuited  to  their  purposes,  unfit 
to  be  assisted." 

This  chapter  must  not  be  regarded,  by  any  means,  as 
a  complete  exposition  of  the  religion  of  the  Indians.  I 
have  sought  merely  to  give  some  of  the  leading  and 
striking  features  that  those  who  have  never  investigated 
the  subject  may  see  that  there  is  far  more  to  the  beliefs 
of  our  brother  with  the  dark  skin  than  is  generally  be- 
lieved. 


CHAPTER  XIII 

INDIAN    SONGS   AND    MUSIC 

There  is  one  thing  possessed  by  our  Indians  that, 
so  far,  our  Americanism  and  our  civilization  have  been 
unable  to  touch.  That  is  their  real,  pure,  old-fashioned 
music.  Tradition,  custom,  superstition,  even  fear,  have 
all  worked  together  to  preserve  these  ancient  songs  in 
their  purity  so  that  their  aboriginal  origin  and  character 
are  unquestioned. 

Most  white  people  hold  the  idea  that  Indians  have  no 
music;  that  their  songs  are  nothing  but  a  succession  of 
grunts,  shrieks,  yells,  howls  and  infernal  noises.  Among 
those,  however,  who  have  "  awakened  their  senses  that 
they  may  the  better  judge,"  this  popular  notion  is  known 
to  be  a  most  egregious  error.  The  Pueblos  have  a  clearly 
defined  sense  of  rhythm,  of  melody,  of  emphasis  and  suit- 
ability of  their  music  to  the  subject. 

\Yhile  there  are  several  musical  writers  who  have 
undertaken  to  present  Indian  music  for  white  consump- 
tion, it  must  be  confessed  that  most  of  it  bears  little  re- 
semblance to  the  original,  being  rather  a  highly  individ- 
ualized form  of  modern  music,  merely  carrying  a  sug- 
gestion of  the  Indians'  themes  or  motifs. 

There  are  three  writers,  however,  who  have  done  most 
faithful,  true  and  successful  renditions  of  Pueblo  and 
other  Indian  music,  both  as  to  the  accurate  writing  down 
of  the  melodies  and  in  the  manufacture  of  suitable  har- 
monies.    It   should   not  be   overlooked   by   the   general 

220 


Indian  Songs  and  Music 221 

reader  that  the  Indians'  music  is  all  melodic.  He  knows 
nothing  whatever  of  harmony.  Hence  all  harmonized 
compositions  that  purport  to  be  Indian  are  Indian  only 
as  to  melody,  the  harmonies  being  the  white  man's  idea 
as  to  what  the  Indians'  harmonies  would  be,  did  he  make 
them. 

Here,  then,  is  great  room  for  discussion  and  variation 
of  opinion,  and  it  appears  to  be  reasonable  to  assume  that 
only  those  who  have  long  dwelt  with,  or  at  least  long  and 
carefully  listened  to,  the  songs  of  the  Indians  can  be 
competent  to  attempt  their  harmonization.  For  instance, 
while  none  can  question  the  charm  and  exquisite  beauty  of 
McDowell's  Indian  music,  and  its  peculiar  qualities  that 
might  truthfully  suggest  the  Indians'  vocalization,  it  can 
only  be  regarded  by  the  fully  informed  as  a  highly  in- 
dividualized form  of  our  own  type  of  music. 

The  three  writers  to-  whom  especially  I  wish  to  refer 
are  Natalie  Curtis  Burlin,  Carlos  Troyer,  and  Thurlow 
Lieurance,  and  here  is  what  the  two  former  have  said 
of  their  own  harmonizations  of  the  Indians'  songs. 
Natalie  Curtis  says  of  certain  corn-grinding  songs : 

In  making  accompaniments  to  these  songs,  I  have  in  nowise 
changed  the  melodies,  nor  have  I  sought  to  harmonize  them  in  the 
usual  sense,  nor  to  make  of  them  musical  compositions.  I  have 
merely  tried  to  reproduce  the  actual  sound  of  the  grinding,  and  to 
add  enough  harmony  to  give,  as  it  were,  a  background  to  the  pic- 
ture. The  millstone  forms,  indeed,  a  crude  native  accompaniment  to 
every  grinding-song,  and  without  a  suggestion  of  it  the  true  char- 
acter of  the  song  would  be  lost.  In  the  choice  of  harmony,  I 
have  been  governed  alone  by  the  character  of  Indian  music,  dis- 
regarding all  thought  of  prescribed  harmonic  progressions.  My  one 
desire  has  been  to  let  the  Indian  songs  be  heard  as  the  Indians 
themselves  sing  them.  Let  the  hearer  imagine  that  he  stands  in 
some  odd  corner  of  the  Indian  village,  beneath  the  dazzling  sky, 
with  the  silence  of  the  desert  about  him.  Suddenly,  from  the  upper 
story  of  some  terraced  house,  comes  the  sound  of  a  clear  voice 
yodeling  in  graceful  melody.     It  is  accompanied  by  the  high,  scrap- 


222    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

ing  noise  of  the  grinding-stone  with  its  ceaseless  monotony  of 
rhythm.  Out  on  the  thin,  clear  atmosphere  float  the  strange  sounds 
—  out  into  the  desert  stillness. 

Of  his  "  Great  Rain  Dance  of  the  Zunis "  Carlos 
Troyer  says : 

The  greatest  care  and  attention  has  been  exercised  to  preserve 
the  true  and  simple  outline  of  the  melody,  and  in  harmonizing 
it,  to  follow  the  natural  impression  their  support  of  crude  in- 
struments would  convey,  and  to  render  their  expressions  and  senti- 
ments as  descriptive  and  realistic  as  possible.  So  simple,  true, 
and  brave  a  people,  so  dignified  and  refined  in  manner  and  action, 
require  no  fanciful  embellishment  or  ornamentation  to  their  sing- 
ing nor  their  instrumental  music ! 

In  his  American  Indian  Melodies,  though  none  of  these 
are  songs  of  the  Indians  of  New  Mexico,  Arthur  Farwell 
refers  to  some  harmonizations  created  by  Professor  John 
Comfort  Fillmore.     He  says: 

These   harmonies  have  been   determined  hardly   by   the   Indian's 

preference,    but    more    particularly    by    the  tonal    structure    of    the 

melodies  themselves,  of  which  Professor  Fillmore  made  a  deep 
and  scientific  study. 

Then  he  proceeds  to  set  forth  the  considerations  that 
affected  him  in  the  creation  of  his  own  harmonizations 
of  the  Indians'  melodies,  as  follows: 

It  struck  the  writer,  however,  that  a  heightened  art-value  could 
be  imparted  to  them,  if  the  composer  should  consult,  not  merely  this 
melodic  structure,  but  the  poetic  nature  of  the  particular  legend  or 
incident  of  which  each  song  was  the  outcome.  For  it  must  be  un- 
derstood that  these  songs  are  entirely  dependent  upon  mythical  or 
legendary  occurrences,  which  they  qualify  or  interpret,  or  upon 
religious  ceremonies  of  which  they  form  a  part.  The  writer 
realized  that  if  the  musical  imagination  could  be  fired  by  a  con- 
sideration of  the  particular  legend  pertaining  to  a  song,  it  would 
give  rise  to  a  combination  of  harmonies  far  more  vitally  con- 
nected with  the  song's  essence,  its  spiritual  significance,  than  any 
which  should  be  the  outcome  of  a  mere  consideration  of  the 
melodies'  tonal  structure. 


Indian  Songs  and  Music 223 

When  the  question  was  raised  as  to  whether,  after  all, 
the  sole  value  of  these  Indian  melodies  to  the  white  mind 
was  not  owing  to  its  harmonic  treatment,  Farwell  em- 
phatically answered  with  an  unqualified  and  almost  im- 
patient "  No !  "     For,  says  he, 

The  harmonic  colour-scheme  is  purely  the  outcome  of  the  melody 
and  its  specific  religious  significance,  and  is  merely  an  aid  to  its  more 
complete  expression.  Without  this  significance,  the  melody  would 
never  have  been  born  ;  without  the  melody,  the  harmonic  combina- 
tion (the  joint  result  of  the  significance  and  the  melody)  would 
never  have  been  born ;  and  this  significance  and  melody  is  the 
Indian's.  The  final  result  is  the  consequence  of  a  trained  intellect 
seizing  upon,  and  expressing  in  a  mode  comprehensible  to  its  kind,  a 
feeling  already  fully  developed  in  a  race  whose  mode  of  expression 
is  more  primitive,  or  perhaps  merely  different. 

There  are  a  few  important  points  about  the  songs  of 
the  Indians  that  should  not  be  overlooked.  As  Natalie 
Curtis  truthfully  says: 

Wellnigh  impossible  is  it  for  civilized  man  to  conceive  of  the 
importance  of  song  in  the  life  of  the  Indian.  To  the  Indian,  song 
is  the  breath  of  the  spirit  that  consecrates  the  acts  of  life.  Not  all 
songs  are  religious,  but  there  is  scarcely  a  task,  light  or  grave, 
scarcely  an  event,  great  or  small,  but  has  its  fitting  song. 

In  the  Hebrew  "Genesis"  the  creating  word  is  spoken — "And 
God  said,  Let  there  be  light."  In  nearly  every  Indian  myth  the 
creator  sings  things  into  life.  For  civilized  man,  the  messages  of 
truth,  the  traditions  of  his  ancestors,  the  history  of  his  race,  the 
records  of  his  thought  have  been  secured  upon  the  written  page 
and  so  transmitted  through  the  years.  To  the  Indian,  truth,  tradi- 
tion, history,  and  thought  are  preserved  in  ritual  of  poetry  and 
song.  The  red  man's  song  records  the  teachings  of  his  wise 
men,  the  great  deeds  of  his  heroes,  the  counsel  of  his  seers,  the 
worship  of  his  God.  If  all  things  Indian  must,  indeed,  pass  away 
under  the  white  man's  ban  as  being  "  pagan "  and  "  uncivilized," 
then  will  be  lost  to  the  red  man  not  only  his  whole  unwritten  litera- 
ture, but  also,  and  sadder  still,  the  realm  wherein  his  soul  aspires. 
For  to  the  primitive  man  of  another  race,  no  creed  wholly  alien 
to  his  thought  and  environment  ever  can  replace  his  own  entire 
spiritual  world,  which  is  the  heritage  of  his  past  and  the  natural  ex- 
pression of  his  soul. 


224    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

Indian  song  has  a  far  closer  relation  to  religion  or  its 
ceremonials  than  with  any  civilized  people,  hence  it  is 
almost  impossible  to  hear  certain  of  their  songs  except 
on  special  occasions.  Therefore,  to  gain  a  reasonably 
comprehensive  idea  of  the  scope  and  variety  of  their 
music  one  must  spend  at  least  a  whole  year  —  make  the 
complete  cycle  of  their  ceremonial  calendar  —  with  them, 
or  he  can  never  hear  those  songs  and  chants  that  are  re- 
served for  the  special  occasions  of  winter  and  summer 
solstices,  the  coming  and  going  of  the  Katchinas,  etc. 

Then,  too,  many  songs  are  archaic ;  their  origin  is 
lost  in  tradition ;  even  the  significance  of  the  words  is 
unknown.  It  is  as  though  they  were  in  an  alien  and 
foreign  tongue,  yet,  so  important  is  rigid  accuracy  in  their 
rendition,  that,  on  ceremonial  occasions  there  are  always 
several  critics  present  who  listen  attentively,  and  should 
any  error  in  tone,  rhythm  or  tempo  occur,  the  whole  cere- 
monial is  vitiated  and  everything  must  begin  again  at 
the  beginning. 

The  matter  of  decided  change  of  tempo  for  one,  two, 
three,  or  more  bars  and  sudden  reversion  to  the  original 
time,  is  a  striking  characteristic  of  Pueblo  music.  It  is 
in  no  sense  a  rallentando.  It  is  a  decided  and  definite 
change  for  the  prescribed  time,  and  is  observed  with  the 
precision  of  a  metronome,  changing  again  to  the  original 
tempo,  which  is  resumed  with  accuracy.  It  has  been 
aptly  described  as  a  "  leap  from  one  tempo  to  another 
and  back  again."  The  important  matter  to  the  listener 
is  to  realize  that  it  is  perfectly  accomplished. 

Another  peculiarity,  which  is  a  general  characteristic 
of  all  Indian  song,  is  the  rhythmical  pulsation  of  the  voice 
on  sustained  notes.  In  the  song  herein  transcribed  this 
pulsation  is  expressed  whenever  tied  notes  have  vocables 
or  syllables  written  out  beneath  them. 


Indian  Songs  and  Music 225 

Another  striking  characteristic  has  been  presented 
forcefully  by  Charles  Wakefield  Cadman  in  his  lectures, 
viz.,  the  ability  of  the  Indian  to  control  two  or  more 
rhythms  at  one  and  the  same  time.  His  drum  beat  will 
be  in  one  tempo,  his  song  in  another  and  his  dance  move- 
ments in  yet  another,  and  still,  the  onlooker,  while  real- 
izing these  differences,  is  also  conscious  of  a  peculiar 
harmony  of  movement  in  them. 

Of  scores  of  the  songs  of  the  Pueblos  might  be  said 
what  Arthur  Farwell  eloquently  says  of  one  of  the  Omaha 
Indian  songs  he  has  harmonized : 

It  gives  expression  to  a  mellowed  love  of  life,  born  of  years 
of  benign  and  ennobling  existence,  voiced  at  dawn  in  the  presence 
of  peaceful  nature.  It  is  a  tribute,  in  song,  to  the  spirit  of  Love 
and  Beauty  in  the  world.  The  dreamy  and  idyllic  prelude  is  but  a 
floating  breath.  This  song,  with  its  phrases  like  the  notes  of 
birds,  and  its  pastoral  musings,  is  singularly  self-explanatory.  It 
wafts  like  the  breath  of  a  zephyr  over  the  grasses  of  gentle  hill- 
tops, and  is  not  inferior,  in  its  idyllic  quality,  to  the  music  which 
Wagner  conceived  for  the  "  Flower-maidens  "  in  Parsifal. 

Of  dramatic  qualities  it  is  neither  ignorance  nor  ex- 
aggeration that  leads  me  to  affirm  that  there  is  much  in 
the  music  of  the  Navahos,  Apaches,  and  various  Pueblos 
of  New  Mexico  that  equals,  and  I  believe,  surpasses, 
anything  in  any  of  the  grand  operas  produced  in  Eu- 
rope during  the  past  hundred  years. 

What  can  be  more  dramatic  than  the  Ghost  Dance  of 
the  Znnis  transcribed  by  Carlos  Troyer.  Here  are  the 
author's  own  notes: 

This  dance  is  not  strictly  an  annual  with  the  Zunis ;  in  fact  vari- 
ous occasions  may  induce  its  performance,  foremost,  the  recent 
death  of  a  beloved  member  of  their  tribe.  The  ostensible  object 
of  this  ritual,  it  would  seem,  is  the  calling  into  view  and  into  their 
presence,  the  spirits  of  the  departed,  which  they  hold  is  best  ac- 
complished by  the  strenuous  exertion  of  the  fire-dance  and  by  loud 
and  urgent  appeals  and  entreaties  to  appear  and  join  them  in  the 


226    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

merry  dance.  The  time  chosen  is  usually  at  the  full  of  the  moon 
and  the  dance  is  participated  in  by  most  of  the  tribes-people.  The 
ancient  ruins  and  deserted  and  secluded  places  are  the  spots  looked 
upon  as  favorable  to  this  object,  such  as  the  old  town  of  Zuni,  but 
more  frequently  the  plateau  upon  the  great  thunder-mountain,  "Tai- 
'ol-lon-ne,"  is  the  special  haunt  of  the  annual  ghost  dancers. 

This  latter  spot  constitutes  the  highest  elevation  of  the  mount, 
which  is  about  a  mile  in  diameter.  Standing  upon  a  projecting 
rock  within  two  hundred  feet  of  the  center  we  could  distinctly  feel 
the  heat  (though  on  a  cold  winter  night)  of  the  tall,  pyramid- 
shaped  fire-piles  in  full  blaze.  Two  concentric  circles  of  fire-piles 
were  visible,  the  piles  of  the  outer  being  about  five  feet  apart,  the 
inner  or  central  pyramids  (about  twenty  feet  from  the  outer 
circle)  being  built  closer  together.  The  dancers  were  almost  nude, 
but  most  fancifully  painted  all  over  their  bodies,  the  red  colour 
predominating,  and  turbaned  heads  adorned  with  eagle  feathers  and 
their  feet  clothed  in  moccasins. 

The  opening  of  the  dance  was  preceded  by  the  blast  of  long, 
deep-sounding  trumpets,  accompanied  by  the  beating  of  gongs  and 
the  snake  drums,  which,  together,  had  the  effect  of  a  solemn,  dirge- 
like march.  This  was  followed  by  the  appearance  of  some  forty 
ghost  dancers  holding  in  their  right  hands  fire-brands,  which  they 
whirled  to  and  fro,  and  in  their  left  snake-rattles,  which  they 
shook  at  every  step  of  the  dance,  singing  to  a  wild  monotone  chant, 
"  Hec,  hec,  jecta-hec,  hec,  hec,  tu-na,  wo-ki,  nai-ia,  ku-ra  hec,  hec, 
hec,"  etc.,  meaning  "  Come,  come,  come,  come  among  us,  come  be 
with  us,  all  united  we  will  meet  you  in  the  fire-dance,  come,  come, 
come,"  etc.  The  dance  proceeds  immediately  after  the  inner  pyra- 
mids are  lit,  the  dancers  following  a  serpentine  path  in  and  out 
the  fire-piles,  but  soon  becoming  lost  to  sight  as  the  volume  of  smoke 
completely  envelopes  them. 

The  chant  is  a  constant  and  varied  appeal  to  their  departed  friends, 
alternating  in  loud  and  low  strains,  once  merry  and  joyful  as  in 
happy  expectance,  then  again  mournful  and  entreating,  that  they 
should  come  and  join  them  in  their  dance  and  make  themselves 
visible.  Thus  by  their  acclamations  and  various  methods,  they 
seek  to  attract  the  spirits  of  the  departed,  first  in  merry-making, 
then  by  the  imitation  of  sounds  of  wild  animals,  such  as  the  wolf, 
coyote,  mountain  lion,  and  wild  birds  (which  they  are  wonderful  in 
imitating  as  a  lure  while  on  the  hunt)  :  then  again  they  appeal  to 
their  sympathies  in  mournful  strains,  begging  them  to  be  again 
among  them  to  cheer  their  lonesome  lives,  and  to  these  cries  strange 
responses  are  echoed,  bringing  assurances  that  the  spirits  will  soon 
appear  to  them. 


Indian  Songs  and  Music 227 

The  climax  of  the  greatest  excitement  of  the  dance  was  reached, 
when  the  inner  fire-circle  was  at  its  fullest  blast,  and  the  cries 
and  moans  of  the  dancers  rose  to  the  highest  tension.  At  this 
moment,  when  from  all  sides  the  closest  watch  was  kept  on  the 
rising  smoke  of  the  central  fire,  a  sudden  lull  took  place  —  as  of  a 
deep  inspiration  before  giving  vent  to  their  pent-up  feelings  — 
for  their  anxious  expectations  seemed  at  last  gratified  by  the  appear- 
ance of  slowly  descending  figures  of  transparent  human  forms. 
An  outburst  of  the  wildest  joy  and  the  loudest  exclamations  of  wel- 
come, nearly  bordering  on  frenzy,  took  possession  of  the  assembled, 
crowd.  These  spectral  figures  were  seen  slowly  descending  and 
rising  and  in  part  keeping  step  with  the  music  of  the  dancers, 
while  the  excitement  was  at  its  height.  As  the  fires  diminished 
the   spectral   forms  quickly   vanished. 

Then  the  dance  was  renewed  again,  this  time  the  outer  fire- 
piles  being  set  on  fire.  The  dancers,  one  and  all,  soon  disappeared 
behind  the  burning  pyramids  as  the  smoke  became  the  thickest  and 
the  fire-flames  rose  the  highest.  All  the  spectators  now  turned 
back  to  more  elevated  regions  on  the  surrounding  cliffs,  to  watch 
the  progress  of  the  second  fire-dance.  The  same  scene  was  enacted 
and  the  transparent  human  forms  appeared  this  time  still  more  dis- 
tinct and  apparently  closer  to  the  ground.  The  crowd  could 
now  no  longer  be  held  back,  and  the  surging  mass  rushed  towards 
the  center  amidst  the  wildest  cries  and  moans,  only  to  find  that 
all  had  vanished,  ghosts  and  dancers  alike,  and  nothing  was  left 
on  the  ground  but  the  last  dying  embers  and  ashes,  of  fire-wood. 

In  the  Sunrise  Call,  also  transcribed  by  Carlos  Troyer, 
the  simple  dramatic  elements  are  utilized  with  great  ef- 
fect. The  piece  opens  with  the  vibrating  chime-plates 
vigorously  brought  into  action  in  the  hands  of  the  Sun- 
priest.  This  calls  out  upon  the  house-tops  men,  women 
and  children.  Now  with  stentorian  and  thrilling  voice 
he  cries  to  the  far-away  distant  mesas,  "  Rise,  arise, 
arise."  Then  with  ventriloquial  sweetness  the  response 
comes  in  the  form  of  an  echo.  Now  with  vigour  and  in- 
spiration he  sings : 


Wake  ye !  arise !  life  is  greeting  thee. 
Wake  ye!  arise!  ever  watchful  be. 
Mother  Life-god,  she  is  calling  thee! 
Life-god,  she  is  greeting  thee! 


228    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

Again  the  cry  breaks  forth  to  "  Arise!  "  followed  by 
the  soft  echo.  Now,  in  appealing,  tremulous  voice,  the 
Sun  Priest  prays  in  his  song : 

Mighty  Sun-god !  give  thy  light  to  us, 

Let  it  guide  us,  let  it  aid  us, 

See  it  rise !     See  it  rise  ! 

How  the  heart  glows, 

How  the  soul  delights, 

In  the  music  of  the  sun-light. — 

Watch  it  rise !     Watch  it  rise ! 

Wake  ye,  arise,  life  is  greeting  thee. 

Wake  ye,  arise,  ever  watchful  be. 

Mother  Life-god,  she  is  calling  thee! 

Mother  Life-god,   she  is  greeting  thee ! 

The  prayer  concludes  with  a  final  repetition  of  the  sun 
call  and  its  echo.  When  one  hears  this  song  it  makes 
no  difference  whether  he  can  understand  the  words  or 
not;  the  dramatic  quality  is  powerfully  felt.  And  this 
fact  leads  to  the  observation  that  the  Indian  is  much 
concerned  that  the  words  of  his  songs  be  clearly  heard 
and  understood.  This  in  spite  of  the  further  fact  already 
referred  to  that  many  of  his  songs  are  archaic  and  he  him- 
self even  does  not  understand  the  words.  But  in  such 
a  case  there  is  a  mysterious  element  in  the  strangeness  of 
the  words,  in  their  very  antiquity,  in  the  solemnity  of  the 
accompanying  ceremonies,  that  produce  the  needful  emo- 
tions even  more  powerfully  than  were  the  words  under- 
stood. For  the  Indian  lives  in  the  very  heart  of  mys- 
tery. All  around,  beneath,  above  him  are  the  mysteries 
of  Nature.  Life  is  a  great  mystery.  Death  also.  The 
ebb  and  flow  of  the  tides,  the  winter  and  summer  solstices, 
the  rain  and  snow,  thunder  and  lightning,  the  moon  and 
stars, —  all,  all,  are  mysteries. 

Yet  he  is  also  susceptible  to  the  charm  and  beauty  of 
that  which  surrounds  him.     After  the  cold  weather,  when 


Indian  Songs  and  Music 229 

the  sun  comes  forth  and  abundantly  warms  him  he  is 
thankful  for  the  grateful  warmth  and  appreciative  of 
the  beauty  of  the  up-springing  grass  and  flowers  and  the 
leafing  out  of  the  trees.  He  watches  with  joy  the  bees 
and  butterflies  as  they  flit  to  and  fro ;  and  the  mist  pro- 
duced by  the  sun  shining  on  the  pollen  blown  through 
the  air  is  gloriously  beautiful  to  him.  He  sees  the  glint 
of  sun  on  water  and  the  delight  of  rippling  waves. 
These  and  a  thousand  and  one  other  things  of  Nature's 
manifestation  appeal  to  him  in  mystery,  beauty,  glory, 
charm,  beneficence,  and  so  he  incorporates  them  into  his 
songs.  Hence  the  need  of  a  thorough  study  of  the  words 
of  all  Indian  songs.  Indeed,  in  Indian  music  there  are 
four  features  that  should  be  separately  studied,  viz. : 

i.  The  words,  2.  The  melody,  3.  The  relationship 
between  the  words  and  the  melody,  4.  The  rendition. 

1.  The  words.  After  a  study  of  scores  of  songs,  many 
of  which  have  been  personally  collected,  I  am  wonder- 
fully impressed  with  the  high  patriotism,  love  of  coun- 
try, love  of  the  immediate  objects  of  scenery,  etc.,  with  the 
folk-lore,  the  religion,  the  reverence,  and  the  profound 
love  for  Nature  they  reveal. 

As  former  president  Theodore  Roosevelt  says  of  them 
in  his  Introduction  to  Natalie  Curtis's  Indian  Book: 

They  cast  a  wholly  new  light  on  the  depth  and  dignity  of  Indian 
thought,  the  simple  beauty  and  strange  charm  —  the  charm  of  a 
vanishing  elder  world  —  of  Indian  poetry. 

Just  as  I  am  completing  this  manuscript  for  the  press 
there  comes  to  my  hand  a  handsome  volume,  The  Path  of 
the  Rainbow,  a  book  of  Indian  poems,  edited  by  George 
W.  Cronyn.  Mary  Austin,  who  wrote  the  Introduction, 
has  had  years  of  intimate  association  with  Indians,  knows 
their  legends,  social  life,  religious  ceremonies  and  songs, 


230    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

as  few  whites  ever  learn  them.     Hence  her  words  have 
a  decided  value  when  she  says : 

The  poetic  faculty  is,  of  all  man's  modes,  the  most  responsive 
to  natural  environment,  the  most  sensitive  and  the  truest  record 
of  his  reactions  to  its  skyey  influences,  its  floods,  forests,  morning 
colours.  It  is  the  first  to  register  the  rise  of  his  spirits  to  the 
stimulus  of  new  national  ideals.  If  this  were  not  so  there  would 
be  no  such  thing  as  nationality  in  art,  and  it  is  only  by  establish- 
ing some  continuity  with  the  earliest  instances  of  such  reaction 
that  we  can  be  at  all  sure  that  American  poetic  genius  has  struck 
its  native  note.  Therefore  it  becomes  appropriate  and  important  that 
this  collection  of  American  Indian  verse  should  be  brought  to  pub- 
lic notice  at  a  time  when  the  whole  instinctive  movement  of  the 
American  people  is  for  a  deeper  footing  in  their  native  soil.  It 
is  the  certificate  of  our  adoption,  that  the  young  genius  of  our 
time  should  strike  all  unconsciously  on  this  ancient  track  to  the 
High  Places. 

Poetic  art  in  America  at  the  time  it  began  to  be  overlaid  by 
European  culture,  had  reached  a  mark  close  to  that  of  the  Greeks 
at  the  beginning  of  the  Homeric  era.  The  lyric  was  well  de- 
veloped, the  epic  was  nascent,  and  the  drama  was  still  in  the  Satyris 
stage  of  development,  a  rude  dance  ritual  about  an  altar  or  a  sac- 
rificial fire.  Neither  poetry  nor  drama  were  yet  divorced  from 
singing,  and  all  art  was  but  half-born  out  of  the  Great  Mystery. 
Magic  was  sung,  and  songs  had  magic  power.  Both  were  accom- 
panied by  appropriate  bodily  movement,  so  that  an  Indian  will  say 
indifferently,  I  cannot  sing  that  dance,  or  I  cannot  dance  that  song. 
Words,  melody  and  movement  were  as  much  mixed  as  the  water 
of  a  river  with  its  own  ripples  and  its  rate  of  flowing.  Hum  a  few 
bars  of  a  plainsman's  familiar  song,  and  he  will  say,  puzzled,  "  It 
ought  to  be  a  war  song,"  but  without  the  words  he  will  scarcely 
identify  it.  Words  may  become  obsolete  so  that  the  song  is  un- 
translatable, but  so  long  as  enough  of  it  remains  to  hold  together  the 
primary  emotional  impulse  out  of  which  it  sprang,  the  Indian  finds 
it  worthy  to  be  sung.  He  is,  indeed,  of  the  opinion  that  "  White 
man's  songs,  they  talk  too  much." 

This  partly  explains  why  most  Indian  songs  are  songs  for  oc- 
casions. The  rest  of  the  explanation  lies  in  the  fact  that  songs 
have  magic  power.  Tirawa,  Wokonda,  The  Friend  of  the  Soul  of 
Man,  is  in  everything;  in  the  field  we  plant,  the  stone  we  grind 
with,  the  bear  we  kill.  By  singing,  the  soul  of  the  singer  is  put 
in  harmony  with  the  Essence  of  Things.  There  are  songs  for 
every  possible  adventure  of   tribal  life;    songs   for  setting  out   on 


Indian  Songs  and  Music 231 

a  journey,  a  song  for  the  first  sight  of  your  destination,  and  a  song 
to  be  sung  by  your  wife  for  your  safe  return.  Many  of  these  songs 
occur  detached  from  everything  but  the  occasion  from  which  they 
sprang,  such  as  the  women's  grinding  song,  measured  to  the 
plump,  plump!  of  the  mealing  stone,  of  the  Paddle  Song  which 
follows  the  swift  rhythm  of  the  stroke.  Others,  less  descriptive 
and  retaining  always  something  of  a  sacred  character,  occur 
originally  as  numbers  in  the  song  sequences  by  which  are  celebrated 
the  tribal  Mysteries. 

Back  of  every  Indian  ceremony  lies  a  story,  the  high  moments  of 
which  are  caught  up  in  song,  while  the  burden  of  the  narrative  is 
carried  by  symbolic  rite  and  dance.  The  unequal  social  develop- 
ment of  contemporaneous  tribes  affords  examples  from  every 
phase  of  structural  development  from  the  elemental  dance  punctu- 
ated by  singing  exclamations  to  the  Mountain  Chant  of  the  Zuni  in 
which  the  weight  of  the  story  has  broken  down  the  verse  variants 
into  strong  simple  forms  capable  of  being  carried  in  a  single 
memory.  Halfway  between  them  is  the  ritual  sequence  of  the 
Midewan. 

The  practical  necessity  of  being  preserved  and  handed  on  by 
word  of  mouth  only,  must  be  constantly  borne  in  mind  in  consider- 
ing the  development  of  Indian   verse   forms. 

It  operated  to  keep  the  poetry  tied  to  its  twin-born  melody,  which 
assisted  memory,  and  was  constantly  at  work  modifying  the  native 
tendency  to  adjust  the  rhythm  to  every  changing  movement  of  the 
story. 

In  analyzing  the  different  types  of  song  she  thus  speaks 
of  the  personal  songs : 

For  the  casual  reader  more  interest  attaches  to  the  personal  songs, 
the  lullabys,  love  songs,  most  of  all  the  man's  own  song  which 
he  makes  of  great  moment.  This  is  a  peculiar  personal  posses- 
sion. No  one  may  sing  it  without  his  permission.  He  may  be- 
stow it  on  a  friend,  or  bequeath  it  to  the  tribe  on  his  death,  but  it 
is  also  possible  that  he  may  die  without  having  sung  it  to  any  one 
but  his  god. 

On  one  occasion  in  the  high  Sierras  I  observed  my  Indian  packer 
going  apart  at  a  certain  hour  each  day  to  shuffle  rhythmically 
with  his  feet  and  croon  to  himself.  To  my  inquiry  he  said  it  was 
a  song  which  he  had  made,  to  be  sung  by  himself  and  his  wife  when 
they  were  apart  from  one  another. 

It  had  no  words;  it  was  just  a  song.  Wherever  they  were  they 
turned  each  in  the  direction  he  supposed  the  other  to  be,  when  the 


232    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

sun  was  a  bow-shot  above  the  edge  of  the  heavens,  and  sang  to- 
gether. This  is  the  sort  of  incident  which  gives  the  true  value  of 
song  in  aboriginal  life.  It  is  not  the  words  which  are  potent,  but 
the  states  of  mind  evoked  by  singing,  states  which  the  simple 
savage  conceived  as  being  supernally  good  for  him.  He  evoked  them 
therefore  on  all  his  most  personal  occasions.  Poetry  is  the  Path 
on  the  Rainbow  by  which  the  soul  climbs ;  it  lays  hold  on  the  Friend 
of  the  Soul  of  Man.  Such  exalted  states  are  held  to  be  pro- 
tective and  curative.  Medicine  men  sing  for  their  patients,  and, 
in  times  of  war,  wives  gather  around  the  Chief's  woman  and  sing 
for  the  success  of  their  warriors. 

"  Calling  on  Zeus  by  the  names  of  Victory,"  as  Euripides  puts  it. 

It  is  this  inherent  power  of  poetry  to  raise  the  psychic  plane 
above  the  accidents  of  being,  which  gives  meaning  to  the  custom 
of  the  Death  Song.  As  he  sees  his  moment  approaching,  the  Indian 
throws  himself,  by  some  profound  instinct  of  self-preservation,  into 
the  highest  frame  of  mind  attainable.  When  men  in  battle  broke 
into  the  death  song,  they  had  committed  themselves  to  the  last 
desperate  adventure.  Dying  of  enfeebling  sickness,  their  friends 
came  and  sang  around  them.  One  such  I  heard,  the  death  song  of 
a  Yokut  Song  Maker.  It  was  very  simple : 
"  All  my  life 

I  have  been  seeking, 
Seeking !  " 
What  more  than  this  have  the  schools  taught  us ! 

Navahos,  Apaches,  Pueblos,  all  alike  have  songs  of 
creation;  of  the  Holy  Ones;  of  the  mountains,  valleys, 
sunrise,  sunsets,  clouds,  sky,  birds,  beasts,  growing 
things.  In  this  desert  New  Mexico  rain  is  one  of  the 
most  desirable  of  all  things,  hence  many  of  the  Indian 
prayer  songs  are  for  rain,  as,  for  instance,  the  Corn 
Dance  Song  of  the  Zunis : 

Who,  ah  know  ye  who  — 

Who  was't  that  made  the  picture  first? 
'Twas  the  bright  Rainbow  Youth, 

Rainbow  youth  — 
Ay,  behold,  'twas  even  thus  — 

Clouds  came, 

And  the  rain  came 

Close  following  — 
Rainbow  then  coloured  all ! 


Indian  Songs  and  Music  233 


Here  is  rich  poetry  and  it  is  equally  expressive  in  the 
Song  of  the  Blue-Corn  Dance. 

Beautiful,    lo,    the    summer    clouds, 
Blossoming  clouds  in  the  sky, 
Like  unto  shimmering  flowers, 
Blossoming  clouds  in  the  sky, 
Onward,  lo,  they  come, 
Hither,   thither,   bound ! 

Who  that  has  watched  the  forming,  blossoming  of 
the  clouds  in  the  sky,  cannot  see  them,  in  this  song,  float- 
ing, drifting,  and,  to  the  Indian  mind,  bringing  the  rain 
that  will  fructify  the  corn  and  make  it  grow  plentifully? 
Yet  the  Indian  sees  far  more  in  the  simple  words  than 
we  do. 

It  is  impossible  to  render  a  perfect  translation  of  In- 
dian songs.  The  Indians'  use  of  words  is  very  differ- 
ent from  ours.  One  word  often  means  so  much;  it 
stands  for  not  only  one  idea,  but  for  other  ideas  which 
surround  it.     On  this  subject  Natalie  Curtis  writes: 

Indian  poetry,  like  Indian  art,  is  expressed  in  symbol.  The  cloud- 
form  in  Indian  design  is  no  copy  of  a  cloud,  but  a  conventionalized 
image  that  is  a  symbol  meaning  cloud,  as  a  wavy  line  means  water 
or  a  cross  stands  for  a  star.  Even  so  in  poetry.  One  word  may 
be  the  symbol  of  a  complete  idea  that,  in  English,  would  need  a 
whole  sentence  for  its  expression.  Even  those  who  know  the 
language  may  not  understand  the  songs  unless  they  know  what 
meaning  lies  behind  the  symbolic  words.  Such  poetry  is  impres- 
sionistic, and  many  may  be  the  interpretations  of  the  same  song 
given  by  different  singers.  Again,  where  the  songs  belong  to  sacred 
ceremonies  or  to  secret  societies,  the  meaning  is  purposely  hidden 
—  a  whole  mystery  enshrined  —  that  only  the  initiated  may  hear 
and  understand. 

Take,  for  instance,  such  a  word  as  the  Navaho  tro- 
tlan-astshi.  Simply  translated,  this  means  "  all  waters," 
or  "  waters  from  many  springs."  But  to  the  Navaho  it 
brings    pictures    of    travelings    towards    certain    sacred 


234    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

springs  and  reservoirs  to  the  north,  west,  south  and 
east,  where  sliamans  or  medicine  men  of  power  and  in- 
fluence have  performed  long,  serious  and  elaborate  cere- 
monials, in  which  prayer,  song,  smoke,  and  dance  have 
had  place.  He  sees  these  shamans  gathering  these  vari- 
ous waters,  and  then,  in  the  sanctity  of  the  medicine 
hogan,  visualizes  their  mixing.  Furthermore  he  sees 
water  from  hail,  snow,  springs,  creeks,  rivers,  lakes  and 
ponds,  carefully  and  ceremonially  gathered  and  mixed 
together,  his  thought  being  that  when  such  water  is 
poured  out  by  Those  Above  upon  his  corn-seed  it  must 
fructify  and  bring  forth  abundantly,  and  by  his  song 
he  aids  in  bringing  this  desideratum  to  pass. 

Another  word  —  nadesta  —  is  used  by  the  Navaho  in 
one  of  his  songs.  Its  direct  translation  is  "  I  am  going 
homeward,"  but  in  this  case  the  context  implies  "  I  shall 
go  home  upon  the  rainbow,"  for  the  "  Superior  Be- 
ings," the  "  Divine  Ones  "  always  travel  in  this  fashion. 

In  one  of  the  Zuni  corn-grinding  songs  the  white 
translator  would  see  nothing  but  the  rainbow  : 

Yonder,    yonder    see    the    fair    rainbow, 

See    the    rainbow    brightly    decked    and    painted! 

The  Zuni,  however,  in  singing,  sees  the  mythical  Rain- 
bow Youth,  one  of  the  important  figures  in  his  pantheon 
of  gods.  He  it  is  that  is  "  brightly  decked  and  painted," 
and  his  coming  means  personal  favour  and  interest  in 
the  people. 

The  remaining  lines  of  the  song  are : 

Now    the    swallow    bringeth    glad    news    to    your    corn, 
Singing,    "  Hitherward,    hitherward,    hitherward,    rain, 

Hither  come !  " 
Singing,    "  Hitherward,    hitherward,    hitherward,    white    cloud, 

Hither  come !  " 
Now  hear  the  corn-plants   murmur, 


Indian  Songs  and  Music 235 

"  We  are  growing  everywhere !  " 
Hi,  yai !     The  world,  how  fair! 

The  Pueblos  have  many  lullaby  songs,  one  of  the 
most  beautiful  of  which  has  become  fairly  familiar  to 
American  music  lovers  through  Carlos  Troyer's  excel- 
lent rendition.  The  words  were  originally  transcribed 
by  Cushing.  The  Zuni  mother  lays  her  baby  in  a  ham- 
mock or  fastens  the  carrying-basket  to  the  swinging 
bough  of  a  tree,  and  placing  her  hand  on  the  top  of  its 
head  she  gazes  at  the  child  with  an  intent  and  affection- 
ate gaze,  exhorting  it  in  a  low  voice,  half  speaking,  half 
chanting,  to  go  to  sleep.     The  words  are : 

Now,  rest  thee  in  peace, 

With  thy  playmates  above; 

Close  thine  eyes,  my  baby, 

Go,  join  in  their  happy  enjoyments,  my  love, 

Sleep  on,  sweetly,  soundly. 

These  words  imply  the  belief  of  the  Pueblos  that  when 
asleep  the  spirit  enters  into  happy  communion  with  other 
freed  spirits  either  from  this  world  or  the  next. 

Now  comes  the  especial  invocation.  While  the  child 
is  still  sleeping  the  mother  passionately  petitions  the  Sun- 
god  and  the  beneficent  powers  in  the  moon  and  stars 
to  give  their  protection  to  the  little  one,  as  only  they  can 
do  while  it  sleeps.  The  gestures,  poses,  movements  from 
one  point  to  another  as  she  addresses  one  heavenly  power 
and  then  another,  and  the  passionate  pleading,  tender, 
urging,  make  of  this  a  most  dramatic  and  impressive 
song.  The  words,  as  translated  by  Cushing,  are  as  fol- 
lows: 

Grant,  O   Sun-god,  thy  protection ! 
Guard  this  helpless  infant  sleeping. 
Grant,  O  Sun-god,  thy  protection 
Guard  this  helpless  infant  sleeping, 


236     New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

Resting  peaceful,  resting  peaceful ! 

Starry  guardians  forever  joyful, 

Faithful  Moon-god  forever  watchful 

Grant,  O  Sun-god,  thy  protection, 

Guard  this  helpless  infant  sleeping! 

Spirit  living,  Spirit  resting, 

Guard  us,  lead  us,  aid  us,  love  us. 

Sun-god,    forever    Spirit    living,    Spirit    resting, 

Guard  us,  lead  us,  aid  us,  love  us, 

Sun-god  forever. 

In  the  reproduction,  in  these  pages,  of  Natalie  Cur- 
tis Burlin's  Lagima  Grinding  Song,  one  may  gain  a  clear 
idea  of  the  richness  of  Indian  melody,  and  the  sweet 
beauty  of  the  poetry.  Of  this  song  Mrs.  Burlin  wrote 
when  she  first  published  it : 

This  song  is  of  singular  beauty,  and  has  found  its  way  far  be- 
yond Laguna  to  distant  Zuni,  a  pueblo  whose  inhabitants  speak  a 
different  tongue.  It  tells  of  the  sweet,  pure  rainwater,  "wonder- 
water,"  caught  in  those  reservoirs  of  nature,  hollows  worn  in  the 
rocks  by  the  erosion  of  wind  and  sand.  Such  water  is  highly  prized 
by  the  Indians,  for  rain  is  the  great  need  of  the  agricultural  pueblo 
people  whose  villages  dot  the  cliffs  and  levels  of  the  desert.  Even 
though  the  pueblos  of  New  Mexico  are  near  the  Rio  Grande  and 
are  further  aided  by  an  ancient  native  system  of  irrigation,  in 
song  and  dance  is  still  expressed  the  cry  for  rain. 

In  order  fully  to  translate  the  meaning  of  the  last  song,  English 
words  had  to  be  added  in  the  phrase,  "  Look  where  southwest 
clouds  are  bringing  rain."  The  Indian  words  are  simply,  "  Yonder 
southwest,  yonder  southeast."  But  the  Indians  thus  explain  the 
passage :  "  In  the  song  we  say,  '  Look  to  the  southwest,  look  to 
the  southeast !  The  clouds  are  coming  toward  the  springs ;  the 
clouds  will  bring  the  water.'  It  is  from  the  southwest  and  the 
southeast  that  we  usually  get  our  rain." 

2.  The  melody.  We  have  already  guessed  enough 
of  the  melody  of  Indian  songs  to  lose  our  first  prejudice 
against  them.  The  melody  of  the  Invocation  to  the  Sun- 
god  is  as  purely  beautiful  and  haunting  as  Robin  Adair 
or  Annie  Laurie.  One  of  the  yodeling  corn-grinding 
songs  of  the  Zunis  has  lived  with  me  over  the  thirty  years 


Indian  Songs  and  Music 237 

since  first  I  heard  it,  and  it  is  as  thrilling  and  appealing 
and  satisfying  to-day  as  it  was  then.  The  song  was 
transcribed  by  Natalie  Curtis  and  appears  in  her  Songs 
of  Ancient  America. 

3.  The  relationship  between  words  and  melody. 

This  is  the  first  thing  that  powerfully  impresses  the 
deeper  student  of  Indian  music.  The  music  is  the  natural 
outcome  of  the  words.  In  Lieurance's  transcriptions  of 
the  Taos  songs  one  feels  this  instinctively.  One  knows 
there  is  sadness,  regret,  pain,  in  the  slow  movement  and 
song  when  the  sun  goes  down,  and  San  Geronimo,  their 
patron  saint,  departs  from  them.  It  is  of  slow  tempo, 
without  drums,  and  a  three-pulse  rhythm. 

Yet,  the  next  day,  when  the  same  music  is  heard  in 
a  much  quicker  tempo  one  feels  the  thrill  or  excitement 
of  victory.  It  celebrates  the  victors  in  the  race.  Of 
their  love  songs  Lieurance  says : 

Probably  the  love  songs  are  the  more  tuneful.  They  are  sung 
at  night  by  members  of  different  clans  from  the  bridge  which  spans 
the  Taos  River  and  separates  the  two  large  pueblos.  You  hear  a 
flute  occasionally.  The  love  songs  are  composed  and  owned  by 
individuals  when  wooing.  Words  of  love,  which  the  girls  say  to 
their  lovers,  are  introduced. 

The  soft  tenderness  of  these  love  words,  and  the  gen- 
tle music  that  accompanies  them  are  most  perfect  mani- 
festations of  adaptation  of  words  to  music.  A  fine  ex- 
ample of  this  is  Troyer's  rendition  of  a  Zuni's  wooing. 
Of  this  song  he  says: 

Before  the  opening  of  the  annual  spring  festivities,  it  is  the  custom 
especially  among  the  graduated  braves  of  a  certain  age  —  the  sons 
of  the  Chiefs  and  High  Priests  —  to  seek  for  themselves  a  wife, 
who  must  also  be  a  maiden  of  high  standing  in  the  tribe.  It  is 
almost  incumbent  upon  a  Zuni  by  the  laws  of  his  forefathers,  in 
order  to  become  eligible  to  the  highest  positions  and  honours  of  the 
tribe,  to  be  a  father,  and  especially  to  have  male  offspring. 

The  time  considered  by  the  Zunis  propitious  for  advancing  their 


238    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

addresses  is  at  the  approach  of,  or  during,  full-moon,  and  in  the 
silent  hours  of  the  night,  when  the  people  rest  in  slumber. 

Arrayed  in  most  gorgeous  attire,  adorned  with  a  handsome  head- 
gear of  various  coloured  feathers,  and  profusely  decorated  with 
silver  ornaments,  shells  and  turquoises,  the  young  brave  goes  forth 
to  the  abode  of  his  love.  Every  step  scintillating  with  the  music  of 
his  tarconca  and  the  shaking  of  his  snake-rattle  filled  with  pebbles, 
he  is  indeed  a  delightful  and  captivating  sight  to  behold.  Yet  his 
special  pride  in  the  display  of  his  attire  he  attaches  to  his  hand- 
somely woven  blanket,  which  he  wears  and  gracefully  waves  in 
his  dance  with  the  object  of  inducing  his  beloved  to  come  and 
take  a  walk  with  him  under  the  blanket,  which  confirms  her  actual 
acceptance  of  him,  as  her  lover. 

He  first  cautiously  approaches  the  dwelling  of  his  loved  one, 
watching  silently  for  any  signs  of  her  presence  at  home  —  listening 
for  any  strains  of  song  from  her  lips,  or  a  glimmer  of  light  from 
the  fire  upon  the  roof  —  and  when  reasonably  assured  of  her  pres- 
ence, enters  with  zeal  into  his  happy  song  and  dance.  The  coy 
maiden  keeps  herself  well  concealed  from  his  gaze,  until  she  feels 
more  confident  of  accepting  him.  If  she  likes  his  personality  or 
his  blanket,  or  both,  she  will,  as  her  first  assent,  throw  him  some 
various  coloured  plumes,  an  arrow  or  bear's  tooth,  as  emblems  of 
love,  bravery  or  fearlessness,  according  to  her  preference.  He  is, 
however,  expected  to  repeat  his  song  and  dance  a  third  time  be- 
fore the  maiden  decides  to  accept  him  or  to  make  her  appearance. 
Failing  in  the  latter,  he  may  as  well  consider  his  suit  rejected.  The 
language  or  expression  of  request  in  this,  as  in  general  in  Zuriian 
intercourse,  is  always  couched  in  most  polite  terms,  never  com- 
manding or  aggressive,  but  conservative  and  appealing,  the  request 
not  being  directly  stated,  but  gracefully  and  poetically  implied. 

The  words  are  as  follows : 

O !     What    happiness !    how    delightful, 

When   together   we,   'neath   one  blanket  walk. 

We  together,  'neath  one  blanket  walk, 

We  together,  'neath  one  blanket  walk, 

We  walk. 

Can  it  be  that  my  young  maiden  fair, 

Sits  awaiting,  all  alone  to-night? 

Is  she  waiting  for  me  only? 

Is  she  waiting  for  me  only? 

May  I  hope  it  is,  my  young  maiden, 

Sitting  all  alone   and  awaiting  me; 

Will  she  come  then? 


• 


Indian  Songs  and  Music 239 

Will  she  walk  with  me?   'neath  one  blanket, 

We  together  be, 

We  two,  we  two,  we  two,  we  two, 

Will  she  come? 

4.  The  rendition.  From  what  has  preceded  it  will 
be  apparent  that  the  Indian's  rendition  of  his  (or  her) 
songs  must  be  alive,  vigorous,  truthful.  They  are  songs 
of  Nature.  When  they  feel  aggressive  their  songs,  their 
words,  and  their  rendition  show  it.  And  so  with  every 
other  rendition.  In  itself  this  feature  of  Indian  life 
might  be  an  education  to  our  American  youth.  It  is  a 
never  failing  exemplification  of  the  scriptural  injunction, 
"  Whatsoever  thy  hand  findeth  to  do,  do  it  with  thy 
might." 

One  might  readily  believe  that  within  the  boundary 
of  one  state  —  even  though  so  large  a  one  territorially 
as  is  New  Mexico, —  the  music  of  the  different  Indians 
would  be  alike,  or,  at  least,  very  similar.  The  converse, 
however,  is  the  fact.  The  voices  of  the  Pueblo  singers 
as  a  whole  are  sweet  and  low,  the  women's  flutelike,  pure, 
clear  and  thrilling;  the  men's  resonant,  well-controlled 
and  full. 

On  occasion  they  can  sing  loudly,  and  they  even  yodel, 
and  one  will  often  hear  a  youth,  going  out  in  the  early 
morning  to  tend  his  sheep,  singing  with  vigour  and 
abandon.  But  even  then  a  sweet  purity  of  tone  is  given 
forth,  and  the  effect  is  soothing  and  pleasing. 

On  the  other  hand  the  dance  songs  of  the  Navaho  and 
Apache  generally  are  high-pitched,  harsh,  half-shrieked 
utterances,  with  an  enlargement  of  that  kind  of  grunting 
emphasis  we  are  all  familiar  with,  at  the  end  of  cadences, 
in  Caruso's  singing.  The  reason  for  this  is  apparent,  as 
these  songs  are  sung  during  dances  of  the  most  energetic, 
almost  violent,  character.     It  is  scarcely  to  be  expected 


240     New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

when  men  are  jumping  up  and  down,  throwing  their 
knees  up  to  their  chins,  moving  hands  and  arms  also  in 
active  gesticulations,  that  they  should  sing  with  the  same 
quiet  purity  as  the  calm  and  placid  Pueblos.  Yet  the 
women,  in  their  lullabies  and  corn-grinding  songs  have 
soft,  quiet,  gentle  tones  that  remind  me  much  of  the 
beautiful  strains  of  the  hermit  thrush. 

My  contention  is  that  this  mad,  hurrying,  money-lov- 
ing, mechanical-moving,  inventive,  restless,  objective  race 
of  Anglo-Saxon  Americans  cannot  afford  to  lose  the  in- 
fluence of  these  poised,  self-controlled,  often  silent,  or- 
iginal dwellers  upon  the  soil.  We  need  much  of  what 
they  possess.  Their  pure  love  of  the  Nature  that  sur- 
rounds them,  their  richly  poetic  expressions  regarding  it, 
their  fiery  patriotism  directed  towards  every  mountain, 
canyon,  plain,  foothill,  stream,  and  trivial  mound  can 
well  be  emulated  by  the  best  of  Americans  and  highly  de- 
sired for  those  less  patriotic  citizens  of  ours  that  our 
recent  war  drafts  have  revealed  as  willing  to  receive  all 
from  this  country  but  to  give  little  or  nothing  in  return. 
The  Indian  above  all  things  else  is  a  devoted  patriot. 
He  loves  every  foot  of  the  land  of  his  birth,  barren, 
desolate,  desert,  marsh,  rock  though  it  be ;  his  eyes  thrill 
with  joy  as  he  wanders  over  it.  He  prays  for  it,  sings 
of  it,  fights  for  it,  and,  if  necessary,  is  glad  to  die  for  it. 

All  this  his  songs  reveal. 

Of  late  years  Homer  Grunn,  a  careful  and  conscien- 
tious student  and  teacher  of  music,  of  Los  Angeles,  has 
visited  the  Zunis,  securing  a  few  of  their  melodies,  which 
he  has  worked  up  into  an  effective  suite  for  the  piano 
entitled  Zuni  Impressions.  Perhaps  it  would  be  nearer 
the  truth  to  say  that,  in  the  three  first  numbers  of  the  suite 
of  four,  he  has  given  out  the  overshadowing  spirit  of 
Zuni  music.     One  feels  the  wide  spaces  of  the  desert 


Indian  Songs  and  Music 241 

country,  the  outlook  upon  high  mesas,  and  the  wild,  primi- 
tive conditions.  Into  the  introductory  measures,  which 
suggest  the  environment,  comes,  with  quiet  calmness,  dig- 
nity and  force,  the  Indian  melodic  themes,  harmonized  in 
expressive  fashion.  The  Flute  god  —  Payatamu  —  who 
aids  in  bringing  rain  —  is  introduced.  The  Zuni  legend 
or  myth  is  that  the  Zuni  gods  of  war,  while  strolling 
about,  heard  wonderfully  sweet  music  issuing  from  a 
secret  source.  They  found,  as  they  approached  Corn 
Mountain  —  Tai-yo-al-la-ne  —  that  it  came  from  a 
spring,  the  entrance  to  which  was  guarded  by  a  rain- 
bow. Here  Payatamu  was  playing  on  his  flute,  while 
eight  beautiful  corn  maidens  were  grinding  corn  and 
singing. 

The  flute-playing  was  the  gentle  gurgling  of  the  spring 
as  the  water  bubbled  to  the  surface,  and  it  has  been 
charmingly  presented  by  Mr.  Grunn,  with  the  accompani- 
ment of  the  corn-maidens  singing  and  grinding,  and  the 
colourful  effects  suggested  by  the  rainbow. 

The  next  number  reproduces  the  mental  effects  pro- 
duced on  the  composer  as  he  watched  the  All  Animal 
Dance  of  the  Zunis.  In  reality  this  is  a  dance  adopted 
from  the  Hopis  —  the  Snake  Dancing  Indians  of  Ari- 
zona. Each  man  wears  a  mask  representing  one  of  the 
game  animals,  from  the  elk  to  the  hare.  The  leader 
represents  Lelentu,  the  Hopi  god  of  music,  butterflies,  and 
flowers,  and  many  visitors  to  the  Hopi  pueblos  have  en- 
joyed the  rare  beauty  of  some  of  the  Lelentu  dances, 
while  others  have  witnessed  the  weird  and  fascinating 
ceremonies  at  the  springs,  while  the  row  of  fluters 
solemnly  piped  their  thrilling  music  upon  their  primitive 
fifes  on  the  hillside  above. 

During  this  dance  at  Zuni  the  men,  personating  the 
animals,    while    preserving   the    rhythmic    effect    of    the 


242    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

movements  of  the  dancers  as  a  whole,  individually  re- 
produce, as  far  as  they  can,  the  movements  of  the  ani- 
mals they  represent.  This  affords  scope  for  great  dra- 
matic effects,  seldom  attempted  on  the  civilized  stage, 
yet,  as  in  Maude  Adams's  representation  of  Chanticleer, 
demanding  a  high  power  of  observation  and  perception 
and  an  equally  high  power  of  reproduction  of  the  ac- 
tions and  mental  qualities  of  the  fowl. 

These  Zunis  seek  to  excel  each  other  in  their  portrayal 
of  the  movements  and  general  characteristics  of  the  ani- 
mals, and  the  careful  observer  may  learn  much  of  these 
dancers  he  would  never  discover  were  he  left  to  his 
own  observation,  even  though  the  living  animals  them- 
selves constantly  were  before  him.  The  dance,  as  a 
whole,  is  most  beautiful,  and  occurs  during  the  ceremonies 
of  the  Saniakiakwe,  or  Hunters',  Fraternity.  It  occurs 
at  intervals  through  the  day  and  concludes  with  one  of 
the  hunters  shooting  a  cottontail  rabbit,  which  gives  great 
grief  to  the  other  animals. 

During  this  dance  Mr.  Grunn  observed  that  one  dancer 
stood  a  little  apart,  and  occasionally  let  out  a  great  roar, 
the  significance  of  which  he  did  not  understand,  and, 
at  the  time,  no  one  present  seemed  able  to  explain.  In 
the  chapter  on  Hunting  I  have  explained  that  the  "  spirit 
roar  "of  the  hunting  fetich  is  supposed  to  have  the  power 
of  actually  terrifying  the  animal  hunted,  so  that  it  easily 
falls  a  prey  to  the  hunter.  This  roar  of  the  dancer  is 
a  representation  of  the  animal  roar  of  the  hunting  ani- 
mal. 

Feeling  the  deep  spirit  of  the  dance,  and  thrilling  with 
this  peculiar  cry  or  roar,  Mr.  Grunn  wrote  the  third 
number  of  his  suite  and  entitled  it  "  A  Mysterious 
Story,"  and  one  cannot  help  but  respond  as  he  listens  to 
its  wild  weirdness.     Equally  effectively   does   he   inter- 


Indian  Songs  and  Music 243 

weave  the  actual  melodies  heard  during  one  of  the  Kor- 
kokshi  Dances  —  a  prayer  for  rain. 

In  addition  to  this  suite  Mr.  Grunn  has  written  a  Song 
of  the  Desert,  an  Indian  Love  Song  and  an  Indian  Dance, 
all  for  the  piano  and  suitable  for  orchestration.  In  them 
he  has  preserved  the  spirit  of  the  music  of  the  country 
and  its  people,  and  I  look  for  later  and  even  finer  work 
from  him,  when  he  can  devote  more  time  and  study  to 
the  inner  life  of  the  Indians  as  well  as  their  music. 

In  this  chapter  upon  the  songs  and  music  of  the  In- 
dians of  New  Mexico  I  have  gathered  together  many 
and  various  threads,  purposely,  in  order  that  the  thought- 
ful reader  might  see  how  that,  by  the  workings  of  many 
keenly  interested  students,  we  are  slowly  entering  into 
and  possessing  the  arcana  of  Indian  poetry  and  song. 

In  conclusion,  I  would  like  to  reiterate  what  cannot  be 
said  too  often,  viz.,  that  this  is  real  music  and  real  poetry, 
born  of  our  own  country,  indigenous  to  our  own  soil,  en- 
shrining the  thought,  history,  poetry,  tradition,  religion 
of  people  of  our  own  land,  and  therefore  a  necessary 
factor  to  the  full  understanding  of  our  country.  Of  its 
suggestiveness  to  our  modern  composers  their  own  works 
must  be  proof. 


CHAPTER  XIV 

THE    NATIVE    ARCHITECTURE    OF    NEW    MEXICO 

For  long  years  it  has  been  the  current  boast  of  Cali- 
fornians  that  the  Franciscan  Mission  buildings  enshrine 
the  only  architecture  that,  truthfully,  can  be  designated 
a  "  style,"  born  within  the  confines  of  what  is  now  the 
United  States.  We  Calif ornians  have  been  sincere  in  this 
declaration.  Yet  it  is  amazing  how  dulled  were  our 
powers  of  observation.  Some  of  us,  for  many  years,  had 
been  rambling  throughout  New  Mexico.  We  were  fully 
conversant  with  the  old  mission  structures  of  that  coun- 
try and  had  delved  into  their  history.  Yet,  having  eyes 
we  saw  not.  We  failed  to  appreciate  that  they  were  as 
distinct  a  variation  from  the  Moorish  type, —  brought 
to  Mexico  by  the  Spaniards  and  from  thence  into  New 
Mexico  and  California  by  the  Franciscan  friars  —  as  was 
the  California  type.  That  they  owe  their  origin  to  the 
same  common  stock  is  evident ;  and  that  the  New  Mexico 
type  was  the  first  developed  is  historically  provable. 
For  most  of  the  churches  were  built  long  before  the  Fran- 
ciscans entered  California. 

To  what,  then,  is  attributable  the  decided  variation 
in  the  two  styles  —  for  it  will  be  agreed  upon,  sooner 
or  later,  to  honour  both  types  by  entitling  them  "  styles  " 
—  of  the  "California  Mission,"  and  the  "New  Mexico 
Mission  "  ?     As  Dr.  Edgar  L.  Hewett  well  remarks : 

The  world  does  not  afford  a  finer  study  in  architectural  adaptation 
than  these  Missions.  First,  they  display  the  historic  ancestry  of 
the  type  as  derived  from  Mexico.     This  we  owe  to  the  Franciscans, 

244 


WxW^ 


JN  J  >>' 


,1 


Native  Architecture  of  New  Mexico    245 

Then  in  a  perfectly  unstudied  way  this  is  merged  into  the  style  of 
the  native  Pueblos.  The  workmen  under  the  direction  of  the  priests 
carried  out  the  feeling  of  their  own  art  with  no  violence  to  the 
foreign  style  that  was  given  them.  The  material  was  the  earth 
on  which  they  stood  and  the  forests  near  by.  Lack  of  tools  except 
the  very  crudest,  and  scarcity  of  metal  prevented  finished  work- 
manship. The  building  is  a  product  of  its  environments,  raw,  crude, 
virile,  imposing  in  its  simple  strength,  and  at  the  same  time  display- 
ing touches  of  finest  esthetic  feeling. 

It  must  be  confessed  that  there  have  been  few  who 
have  realized  these  striking  features  of  the  New  Mexico 
Missions.  Several  mission  churches,  as,  for  instance, 
those  at  San  Fernando  de  Taos,  Penasco,  Nambe,  and 
Santa  Clara,  have  been  either  deliberately  wrecked  to 
make  way  for  more  modern  structures,  or  allowed  to 
fall  into  ruins.  That  of  Zuni  is  a  crumbling  mass  of 
adobe,  while  several  others  are  rapidly  disintegrating. 
Others,  like  that  of  Pecos,  have  long  perished,  or  like 
that  of  Taos  or  Santo  Domingo  were  destroyed  during 
some  conflict,  or  convulsion  of  Nature.  Still  others,  as 
of  Cochiti,  have  been  so  modernized  that  the  "  benevolent 
vandalism  "  has  destroyed  their  New  Mexican  individ- 
uality. 

To-day  an  enthusiastic  group  has  began  to  study  New 
Mexican  architecture  and  to  demand  that  it  be  accorded 
its  proper  place.  Carlos  Vierra,  an  artist  who  has  suc- 
cumbed to  New  Mexican  attractions,  is  a  leader  in  the 
movement  and  has  written  much  that  is  enlightening  upon 
the  subject.  He  shows  clearly  that  New  Mexican  archi- 
tecture is  a  natural  growth,  springing  originally  from 
the  needs  of  the  Indians.  These  were  few,  primitive  and 
simple.  In  their  buildings  the  Indians  were  influenced  by 
the  materials  used,  which,  in  the  main,  were  wood  and 
adobe.  Small  domestic  structures  were  built  of  puddled 
adobe,   supported  on  poles,  branches,  twigs,   etc.,  after 


246     New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

the  fashion  in  which  steel  for  reinforced  concrete  is  used 
to-day.  The  roofs  were  flat  and  there  was  no  attempt  at 
adornment. 

Later  the  community  building  was  developed,  of  which 
the  pueblo  structures  at  the  Hopi  pueblos,  Zuni,  Acoma 
and  Santo  Domingo  and  Taos  are  the  prominent  ex- 
amples. Here,  the  terraced  style  was  invented,  or,  at 
least,  perfected  and  long  in  use,  for  we  find  it  in  dwellings 
that  are  regarded  as  prehistoric.  Simpson's  report  on 
the  ruins  of  Chaco  mesa  and  canyon  contains  a  drawing 
by  R.  H.  Kern,  of  the  appearance  the  ruins  of  Hungo- 
Pavie  pueblo  would  have  if  restored,  and  how  ancient  this 
building  is  we  do  not  know. 

Davis  in  his  El  Gringo,  published  in  1857,  thus  de- 
scribes the  Taos  buildings : 

They  are  five  and  six  stories  high,  each  story  receding  from  the 
one  below  it,  and  thus  forming  a  structure  terraced  from  top 
to  bottom.  Each  story  is  divided  into  numerous  little  compart- 
ments, the  outer  tiers  of  rooms  being  lighted  by  small  windows  in 
the  sides,  while  those  in  the  interior  of  the  building  are  dark,  and 
are  principally  used  as  store-rooms.  One  of  the  most  singular 
features  of  these  buildings  is  the  absence  of  any  direct  communica- 
tion with  the  outside  on  the  ground  floor.  The  only  means  of  en- 
trance is  through  a  trap-door  in  the  roof,  and  you  ascend,  from 
story  to  story,  by  means  of  ladders  upon  the  outside,  which  are 
drawn  up  at  night,  and  the  population  sleep  secure  from  attack  from 
without.  This  method  of  gaining  access  to  the  inside  of  the  house 
is  common  to  all  pueblos,  and  was  probably  adopted  in  early  times 
as  a  means  of  defense  against  the  wild  tribes  by  which  they  were 
surrounded. 

Almost  simultaneously  with  the  Mission  Churches  of 
New  Mexico,  the  Palacio  Real  of  the  governors  in  Santa 
Fe  was  built.  This  is  the  sole  building  in  the  United 
States  that  can  rightly  be  called  a  royal  palace.  It  con- 
formed exactly  to  the  domestic  and  community  architec- 
ture of  the  Indians,  though  constructed  for  civic  as  well 


Native  Architecture  of  New  Mexico    247 

as  domestic  use.  After  it  came  under  American  control, 
its  varied  and  consecutive  occupiers,  blind  to  its  striking 
originality  and,  therefore,  indifferent  to  the  preservation 
of  its  purity  of  style,  loaded  it  down  and  ruined  it  by 
vandalistic  "  improvements."  When  the  movement  for 
a  recognition  of  original  New  Mexican  architecture  be- 
gan, and  the  School  of  American  Archaeology  was  estab- 
lished and  given  control  of  the  old  palace  one  of  the  first 
duties  of  the  school  was  the  reclamation  to  original  type 
of  the  palace  as  far  as  was  possible  in  order  that  it  might 
conform  to  modern  requirements.  At  first  it  was  a  work 
of  elimination,  "  taking  out,"  writes  Dr.  Hewett, 

The  modern  excrescences  —  milled  casings  and  mantels,  papered 
walls,  cloth  ceilings ;  substituting  nothing  at  all  —  simply  laying 
bare  the  ancient  vigas  (beams),  restoring  the  old  natural  lines  of 
doors,  windows  and  fire-places.  The  most  passionate  reverence 
for  the  past  would  not  demand  a  return  to  dirt  floors  and  yeso- 
covered  walls,  nor  did  we  restore  the  mica  windows  nor  the 
festoons  of  dried  Indian  ears  that  formerly  decorated  the  portales. 
However,  literalness,  or  slavish  copying,  is  not  the  idea  in  archi- 
tectural style.  Variation  and  elaboration  within  limits,  with  re- 
straint that  holds  everything  true  to  type ;  and  adaptation  to  local 
conditions  of  climate,  atmosphere,  topography  and  colour  of  earth 
and  sky ;  herein  lies  the  secret  of  great  architecture. 

Here,  then,  we  have  the  two  original  types  of  New 
Mexico  architecture  —  the  domestic  and  the  community 
or  pueblo, —  and  the  two  superposed  types,  viz.,  the  Civic 
and  the  Mission. 

It  should  particularly  be  noted  that  in  all  these  types, 
and  essentially  in  the  two  later  ones,  there  are  no  rigidity 
of  line,  no  absolutely  square  corners,  no  fine  precision 
of  wall  —  none  of  the  strict  mathematical  conformity 
demanded  by  our  machine-cursed  civilization.  Not  only 
is  the  hand  of  the  individualistic  builder  given  free  play, 
but  there  is  a  something  more,  a  consistent  refusal  to  be 


248    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

bound  by  squares  and  plumb-lines,  spirit  levels  and  cali- 
pers.    On  this  subject  Vierra  thus  writes : 

Through  the  common  use  in  both  mission  and  pueblo  of  only 
the  simplest  materials  —  earth  and  timber,  the  new  of  that  period, 
although  foreign  in  proportion  and  purpose,  was  harmonious  with 
the  old  in  character.  The  actual  construction  was  done  by  the 
builders  of  the  old  order,  and  gave  to  the  new,  through  methods 
and  workmanship,  the  free-hand  character  of  the  old.  If  there 
was  anything  of  stiffness  or  formality  about  these  Missions  when 
they  left  the  hand  of  the  builder,  the  greatest  harmonizing  influence 
of  all  —  the  work  of  Nature  —  brought  about  the  final  unity.  The 
constant  erosion  of  plastic  material  softened  by  repair  with  the 
same  material  went  on  in  both  alike. 

It  was  perhaps  this  gradual  change  through  erosion  and  repair 
that  brought  about  its  most  interesting  exterior  character.  In 
fact  this  architecture  is  hardly  to  be  considered  a  finished  product, 
until  this  freeing  of  exterior  form  and  outline  has  taken  place. 

The  gradual  clearing  away  of  any  artificially  ornamental  ex- 
crescences has  left  nothing  but  the  essentials  beautifully  varied 
in  outline.  Any  superficial  ornamentation  characteristic  of  the 
Spanish  Colonial  that  might  have  been  attempted  could  not  stand 
the  test  of  time  in  adobe.  Repair  with  earth  plaster  following  the 
lines  of  erosion  aided  in  the  softening  process,  and  any  hard  pre- 
cision of  line  or  ornament  had  to  give  way.  If  any  part  was  not  use- 
ful, it  was  not  replaced.  That  which  was  not  essential  did  not 
endure,  and  that  which  did  endure  was  marvelously  enriched  with 
a  living,  flowing  quality  of  free  outline  and  form. 

It  is  in  reality  a  free-hand  architecture,  with  the  living  quality  of 
a  sculptor's  work,  and  that  pliant,  unaffected  and  unconfined  beauty 
—  characteristic  of  natural  growth  —  is  Nature's  contribution  to 
the  final  product.  Through  this  contribution,  too,  the  architecture 
is  unique  in  bearing  the  closest  relation  to  the  surrounding  land- 
scape. In  this  sense  it  is  complete,  having  attained  perfection 
through  the  absence  of  that  precision  upon  which  all  other  archi- 
tecture seems  to  depend.  Its  character  is  as  dependent  on  the 
absence  of  precision  as  is  the  beauty  of  natural  architectural  forms 
abundant  in  this  vicinity.  In  the  surrounding  mesas  and  valleys 
there  are  architectural  forms  of  nature,  produced  by  erosion  on 
time-hardened  clay  and  sandstone,  which  often  bear  a  startling 
resemblance  to  great  cathedrals.  Those  who  have  never  recognized 
that  quality  produced  by  the  same  forces  of  Nature  on  similar 
material  in  the  New  Mexico  missions,  can  hardly  escape  its  signifi- 
cance when  brought  face  to  face  with  the  original,  and  the  architect 


Native  Architecture  of  New  Mexico    249 

who  does  not  recognize  this  relation  should  never  attempt  an  ex- 
pression of  this  architecture,  since  its  most  vital  quality  is  beyond 
his  reach. 

The  point  thus  raised  by  Mr.  Vierra  cannot  be  too 
strongly  emphasized.  New  Mexico  essentially  is  a  land 
of  erosion  of  great  rock  masses.  It  is  unique  in  this  re- 
gard. The  traveler  along  the  main  line  of  the  Santa  Fe 
will  recall  the  wonderful  sand  and  wind  carvings  and  ero- 
sions of  the  great  sandstone  cliffs  that  extend  for  miles 
on  each  side  of  the  track,  soon  after  leaving  Laguna 
and  continuously  until  the  Arizona  line  is  reached.  Lum- 
mis  thus  speaks,  truthfully  too,  of  the  enchanting  rock 
formations  in  the  valley  of  the  Enchanted  Mesa  leading 
to  the  peerless  cliff-city  of  Acoma : 

From  the  eastern  slope  of  the  Continental  Divide  the  vast  sand- 
stone blanket  which  gives  the  Southwest  a  formation  unique  in 
the  world,  making  it  the  land  of  mesas,  is  cut  by  winding  canyons. 
Between  them  —  and  made  by  them  —  are  the  characteristic 
"  tables ;  "  flat-topped,  cliff-sided,  from  a  few  rods  square  to  many 
miles  on  a  side.  Where  two  of  these  erosion-clefts  from  the 
Black  Mesa  come  together  like  forks  of  a  river  to  form  a  mightier 
stream,  is  one  of  the  typical  valleys  of  New  Mexico.  Eight  or 
ten  miles  long,  a  mile  to  two  miles  broad,  hemmed  on  either  side 
by  bright-coloured  and  fantastically-eroded  sandstone  precipices 
five  hundred  to  one  thousand  feet  high ;  its  trough-like  floor,  smooth 
to  the  eye  with  distance  and  soft  with  the  mossy  gramma  grass ;  and 
all  bathed  in  that  ineffable  atmosphere  which  is  half  dream  and  half 
mirage — it  seems  an  enchanted  valley  if  ever  human  eyes  have 
looked  upon  anything  that  can  deserve  those  words.  Especially 
from  some  commanding  look-out  when  the  evening  light  is  low, 
it  is  so  unearthly  in  its  beauty  as  no  other  spot  I  have  ever  seen  in 
the  three  Americas.  And  noblest  of  all,  in  that  matchless  view,  are 
the  strange,  tall,  ghostly  forms  that  seem  to  march  with  lengthening 
shadows  down  that  magic  valley  —  the  fantastic  buttes,  mesas  and 
spires  that  stand  rear-guard  of  the  ages. 

Whether  the  theory  of  architectural  origin  propounded 
by  Mr.  Vierra  be  correct  or  not  it  is  both  plausible  and 
illuminative.     It  suggests,  too,  the  necessity  of  keeping 


250    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

it  free  from  outside  and  conflicting  elements.  For  in- 
stance, in  the  accompanying  photographs  the  Mission  of 
Cochiti  is  shown  first  in  its  original  condition.  The  second 
photograph  gives  it  after  "  benevolent  vandalism  "  had 
submerged  its  originality,  individuality  and  pure  charm, 
by  substituting  a  peaked  roof  for  the  flat  roof,  an  arched 
columnade  portico  for  the  typical  Indian  porch,  and  a 
hideous  New  England  steeple  of  tin  for  the  free  handed 
curves  of  the  original  pedimented  bell-tower.  This  kind 
of  "  reform  "  and  "  improvement  "  cannot  too  strongly 
be  deplored,  deprecated  and  opposed.  For,  as  says  Mr. 
Vierra : 

We  are  only  at  the  beginning  of  the  development  of  this  archi- 
tecture—  both  the  Mission  and  the  Pueblo  type,  and  its  combina- 
tions and  possibilities  are  fascinating,  though  it  presents  some 
problems.  It  is  of  the  greatest  importance  for  us  to  keep  it  pure 
in  the  beginning,  to  establish  its  character  definitely  on  sound  analy- 
sis and  adhere  to  it.  Its  dignity  and  beauty  will  always  depend 
on  its  native  purity  and  simplicity.  There  is  much  to  be  said  for 
maintaining  its  thoroughbred  quality,  since  it  is  the  only  type  in 
America  having  its  orign  in  the  soil  upon  which  it  stands  to- 
day. 

If  there  is  confusion  at  the  outset  its  value  to  us  is  lost,  and 
confusion  will  only  add  to  confusion  until  it  is  overcome  by  the 
fate  common  to  most  architecture  of  our  time.  A  striking  ex- 
ample of  this  in  its  most  destructive  form  has  actually  overcome  even 
the  original  in  some  cases.  The  very  structures  in  the  pueblos,  and 
the  actual  work  of  the  Franciscans  and  the  Indians  of  centuries  ago, 
seem  no  longer  sacred.  One  of  the  most  beautiful  of  our  original 
Missions  has  been  submerged  in  "  reform."  What  was  originally 
a  flat  pueblo  roof  is  now  a  peak  roof,  typical  of  the  California 
Mission.  California  arches  in  cement  on  metal  lath  hold  forth  in 
a  front  where  once  stood  the  typical  Indian  porch,  and  a  New  Eng- 
land steeple  (of  tin)  deals  it  the  final  blow.  It  is  an  excellent 
example  of  benevolent  vandalism,  done  with  the  best  of  inten- 
tions,  but    an   awful   example   of    confusion. 

Exterior  arches  have  no  place  in  this  architecture  —  peak  roofs 
are  no  part  of  it,  and  steeples  —  impossible.  Peak  roofs,  steeples, 
the  Roman  arch  of  the  Spanish  Colonial,  and  the  Moorish  arch 
were  ruled  out  through  the  limitations  of  adobe  as  a  material  in 


,  ■<#' mm 

mm* —    ^^>W^/.        Tfrih     dm  W   JSm'.A 

1  JLLcfe/^fli 

1  |i ' 

^^^^^^B^^^^^^^^ '                                              .tft^fa  i,  i 

...sh.,—   •    -^vl 

Photographs  by   the   Museum   of  !\:ew  Mexico. 

THE    MISSION    CHURCH    AT    COCHITI,    BEFORE,    ANL   AFTER, 
'■  RESTORATION." 


Native  Architecture  of  New  Mexico     251 

which  these  forms  could  not  endure.  In  place  of  arches,  and  serv- 
ing the  same  purpose,  we  find  a  related  form  through  the  use  of 
heavy  wooden  capitals  and  corbels  carved  in  simple  design.  The 
absence  of  the  true  arch  is  essential  in  establishing  the  type.  There 
is  not  a  single  instance  in  which  the  true  arch  in  adobe  has  endured 
in  the  exterior,  and  interior  use  is  limited  to  one  example  in  a 
small  doorway.  There  are  early  photographic  records  in  which 
the  arch  appears,  but  these  only  add  proof  to  the  theory  that  adobe 
unsupported  by  wood  or  stone  cannot  be  depended  upon  to  bear  the 
strain  of  a  superstructure.  That  this  material  on  the  other  hand, 
required  a  sound  base,  was  a  potent  factor  in  establishing  the 
sturdy  character  of  the   Pueblo  Indian  Mission  structures. 

Towers  and  belfries  were  perhaps  the  only  features  related  to  the 
Spanish  Colonial  —  though  towers  both  round  and  square  were  to 
be  found  in  Indian  architecture  —  but  those  in  the  missions  con- 
formed so  to  the  general  character,  through  the  forms  developed 
in  adobe  by  erosion  and  repair,  that  their  relation  to  the  Spanish 
was  lost.  The  arrangements  of  porches  and  exterior  balconies 
are  as  closely  related  to  the  Indian,  except  in  the  use  of  carved  wood, 
as  they  are  to  the  Moorish  or  Spanish,  and  there  is  no  example  of 
Spanish  Colonial  in  the  United  States  in  which  the  use  of  exterior 
balconies  is  similar  or  even  related. 

In  keeping  with  the  principles  thus  expressed  the 
School  of  American  Archaeology  was  instrumental  in 
having  its  new  Art  Museum  constructed  upon  pure  New 
Mexico  Mission  lines.  Yet  here  is  no  slavish  copying, 
no  servile  imitation  of  a  building  already  in  existence. 
At  the  same  time  there  is  no  effort  after  originality. 
Purity  of  motif  has  been  the  keyword.  Features  from 
three  or  four  of  the  Mission  buildings  as  well  as  the 
terraced  pueblo  structures  have  been  incorporated,  not 
only  without  destroying  the  unity  of  the  building,  but 
clearly  enhancing  its  charm  and  attraction.  Architects 
and  artists  from  all  parts  of  this  country,  Europe,  and 
elsewhere  in  the  world  have  visited  it  and  practically  all 
are  unanimous  in  praise  of  its  architectural  dignity,  artis- 
tic attractiveness,  and  perfect  adaptability.  As  Mr. 
Vierra  has  written: 


252    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

The  outlines  of  the  new  Museum  are  terraced,  plastic,  flowing. 
There  are  no  hard  and  stiff  plumb  lines  or  levels,  no  exact  repe- 
titions or  parallelisms,  such  as  mark  the  California  Mission  style. 
The  symmetry  is  that  of  mass,  not  of  exact  form.  No  matter  which 
way  one  looks,  or  from  what  vantage  point,  there  is  a  different  archi- 
tectural composition,  a  new  charm,  a  different  pattern  and  design, 
in  which  sunlight  and  ever-moving  shadows  have  a  determining 
part. 

The  lovely  patio  is  in  keeping  with  its  massive  battlements,  its 
shady  cloisters,  its  carved  corbels  and  primitive  pillars  and  vigas. 
The  ceilings  of  the  interior,  the  floors  of  the  St.  Francis  auditorium, 
the  benches,  the  great  St.  Francis  mural  paintings,  the  lighting  of  the 
transept,  the  carving  of  the  grills,  the  reproduction  of  the  massive 
doors  of  Santa  Clara  and  of  the  Needle's  Eye  —  all  merge  into  a 
complete  natural  harmony  that  causes  the  visitor  to  wonder  and 
admire. 

Thus  in  the  Palace  and  the  Museum  the  leaders  in  the 
new  movement  feel  they  have  laid  the  foundations  for  the 
renaissance  of  New  Mexico  domestic,  civic  and  ecclesias- 
tical architecture.  Many  public  and  other  buildings  have 
already  been  erected  under  this  beneficial  influence.  The 
school  for  the  deaf  and  dumb  is  a  fine  example  of  mod- 
ern pueblo  construction.  The  new  High  School,  the 
Santa  Fe  Water  and  Light  Co.,  the  Forestry,  the  Gross- 
Kelly,  the  Sunmount  Sanitarium  buildings  and  others  are 
all  in  line,  and  many  homes  have  also  been  built  in  har- 
mony with  this  great  general  plan  to  make  Santa  Fe  and 
New  Mexico  as  original  and  attractive  in  its  architecture 
as  its  original  founders  instinctively  felt  it  should  be.  As 
Mr.  Vierra  wisely  writes : 

In  favour  of  the  future  development  of  Indian  architecture  is  its 
great  variety,  leading  to  adaptability.  To  accuse  it  of  monotony 
would  be  to  admit  superficial  knowledge  and  lack  of  observation. 
Its  variety  in  arrangement,  outline  and  proportion  is  perhaps  the 
most  fascinating  quality  in  the  original.  There  is  no  architecture 
presenting  such  variety  in  arrangement  as  is  to  be  found  in  some  of 
our  Indian  pueblos  of  from  two  to  four  stories  in  height.  From 
the  domestic  it  merges  beautifully  into  the  ecclesiastic,  and  the 
combination  of  the  two  has  been  charmingly   expressed  in   recent 


Native  Architecture  of  New  Mexico     253 

construction.  Through  this  combination  will  perhaps  come  the 
greatest  adaptability  to  civic  purposes. 

Whenever,  in  the  hope  of  avoiding  monotony,  we  have  over- 
whelmed it  with  California  Mission  and  other  alien  features,  we 
have  added  not  variety,  but  the  monotony  of  confusion  which  is  the 
most  monotonous  feature  in  the  architecture  of  our  modern  com- 
munities. The  results  may  be  interesting  but  they  are  not  construc- 
tive. They  retard  the  development  of  the  type  through  misrepre- 
sentation. Such  examples  are  merely  representative  of  that  tendency 
to  mix  types  through  misunderstanding,  that  has  resulted  in  the 
general  loss  of  character,  dignity  and  importance  in  most  American 
architecture. 

Character,  in  this  architecture,  is  not  skin-deep ;  it  must  be  modeled 
into  the  building  as  it  is  built.  An  uneven  coat  of  plaster,  as  is  often 
suggested,  over  rigidly  constructed  surfaces  and  outlines,  will  not 
give  it.  A  timidly  formal  imitation  of  a  few  interesting  features  of 
the  original  will  not  express  character.  The  builder  who  will  use 
viga  tips  and  sawn  capitals  in  rigid  formality  under  a  slant  shingle 
or  tin  roof,  is  expressing  in  new  building  the  tragedy  that  has  over- 
taken some  of  the  old  Mission  and  native  architecture. 

It  seems  that  a  frank  expression  of  the  original,  a  practical  repro- 
duction of  the  best  that  it  has  to  offer,  requires  more  courage  than 
some  builders  possess.  That  training  which  concentrates  on  the 
machine-like  precision  of  factory  quality  in  architecture  is  most  fatal 
to  either  courage  or  appreciation.  The  architect  who  is  to  be  suc- 
cessful with  it  need  not  ignore  mathematics,  but  he  must  not  allow 
mathematical  precision  to  interfere  where  it  has  no  place,  and  where 
its  absence  is  essential.  He  should  have  in  his  make-up  something 
of  the  sculptor,  for  he  is  dealing  with  a  freedom  of  sculptural  form 
which  no  other  type  includes,  and  upon  which  the  greatest  charm  of 
this  type  depends.  Its  adaptation  to  domestic,  ecclesiastic,  and  civic 
purposes  need  not  bring  about  confusion.  Its  success  along  these 
lines  depends  upon  the  careful  avoidance  of  Spanish  Colonial  and 
other  alien  features.  That  it  is  adequate  as  well  as  adaptable  in  its 
own  characteristic  simplicity  has  been  demonstrated  in  many  build- 
ings. 

That  it  is  not  likely  to  be  extensively  adopted  elsewhere,  adds  to  its 
value  as  a  sectional  development  in  its  native  environment.  Besides 
representing  the  only  architecture  in  America  having  its  foundation 
in  the  prehistoric  time  of  its  locality,  it  is  an  expression  of  our 
earliest  history,  and  it  still  bears  the  closest  possible  relation  to  its 
surroundings  in  modern  times,  even  to  the  extent  of  being  adaptable 
to  modern  uses.  There  is  no  other  architecture  within  the  limits  of 
the  United  States  in  which  all  this  holds  true. 


254    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

These,  then,  were  the  two  types  of  building,  indigenous 
to  the  soil  and  well  suited  to  their  environment,  that  the 
Spanish  conquistadores  and  the  Franciscan  friars  found 
when  they  began  the  colonization  and  christianization  of 
New  Mexico  about  1580.  The  zealous  friars,  with  a 
fervour  and  energy  that  were  never  surpassed,  worked  so 
devotedly  that  when  Benavides  was  sent  out  to  super- 
vise the  missions,  in  1622,  he  brought  with  him  twenty- 
six  new  friars  to  engage  in  the  work  and  found  already 
eleven  churches  built.  Other  buildings  began  to  go  up 
on  every  hand.  With  tireless  persistence,  with  little  or 
no  help  except  from  the  Indians  themselves,  church  after 
church  arose.  At  the  different  villages  of  the  Zuni,  six 
were  erected,  three  among  the  Hopi,  one  at  Acoma,  one 
at  Isleta,  etc. 

These  Franciscan  friars  were  one  in  spirit  and  training 
with  Junipero  Serra  and  his  coadjutors  who,  later,  came 
to  California.  Yet  the  ecclesiastical  buildings  they 
erected  were  entirely  different,  though,  as  has  been  sug- 
gested, they  had  the  same  common  origin.  There  must 
have  been  something  peculiarly  racial,  as  well  as  en- 
vironmental, in  the  divergence.  On  this  subject  Vierra 
conclusively  argues : 

The  Pueblo  Indian  Mission  architecture  of  New  Mexico  is  not 
related  to  California  Mission  architecture  except  in  original  pur- 
pose. It  is  prehistoric  American  in  character  and  construction. 
The  fact  that  its  proportions  may  be  Spanish  perhaps  explains  the 
tendency  among  modern  architects  to  assume  that  it  is  Spanish  in 
character,  and  in  building  they  stand  ready  to  supply  Spanish  ele- 
ments which  were  never  a  part  of  it,  and  which  the  Franciscans 
themselves  did  not  feel  called  upon  to  introduce.  Spanish  propor- 
tion expressed  in  Indian  character  does  not  make  Spanish  architec- 
ture, any  more  than  Greek  proportion  in  Egyptian  character  makes 
Greek  architecture.  .  .  . 

In  considering  the  Mission  structure  too  much  has  been  made 
of  its  relation  to  Spanish  architecture.  It  is  an  error  natural  to 
architects  who,  under  the  influence  of  conventional  training,  are  in- 


Native  Architecture  of  New  Mexico     255 

clined  to  see  everything  through  the  cold  and  formal  medium  of 
mathematical  precision  and  symmetry,  and  the  conventional  forms 
of  geometric  ornament.  What  the  Franciscans  might  have  done  had 
they  been  able  to  obtain  Spanish  workmanship  and  material  has 
little  to  do  with  the  type  as  it  stands,  except  to  emphasize  its  Indian 
character. 

It  is  an  interesting  fact  that  none  of  the  New  Mexico  Missions 
originally  built  of  stone  have  endured,  so  that  we  have  no  knowledge 
of  such  features  as  roof-lines  and  belfries,  and  perhaps  arches. 
The  ruined  walls  that  remain  in  the  abandoned  stone  pueblos  indi- 
cate that  Indian  methods  were  followed  here  as  well.  Had  they 
endured  they  might  have  presented  a  variation  —  being  more  rigid 
in  outline  and  not  subject  to  the  final  harmonizing  influence  of 
erosion. 

The  earliest  explorers  among  the  Pueblo  Indians  returned  with 
glowing  accounts  of  a  people  who  built  great  cities.  It  is  reason- 
able to  suppose  that  the  Franciscans  were  confident  of  being  able  to 
build  their  Missions  among  a  people  who  built  cities,  using  the  ma- 
terial and  methods  that  served  the  native  builders.  It  cannot  be 
said  with  certainty  that  the  Franciscans,  had  they  been  able,  would 
have  built  of  stone,  lime,  and  tile,  as  they  did  in  California  150  years 
later.  There,  the  Indians  had  no  permanent  architecture  of  their 
own,  and  the  Franciscans  either  brought  trained  workmen  with  them 
or  trained  the  Indians  in  Spanish  methods. 

It  is  not  improbable  that,  among  the  Pueblos,  the  Franciscans 
turned  a  seeming  poverty  of  material  to  their  decided  advantage, 
perhaps  realizing  that  by  building  in  harmony  with  their  surround- 
ings they  would  establish  a  closer  sympathy  with  the  inhabitants 
than  if  they  had  built  an  imposing,  an  arrogantly  foreign  cathedral  in 
the  midst  of  simple  and  well  organized  homes.  The  fact  remains 
that  they  used  the  simple  adobe  and  wood  of  the  Indian  builders,  and 
where  they  built  with  stone  in  pueblos  using  the  same  material  it  was 
after  the  Indian  method. 

So  it  is  that  either  through  the  limitations  of  environment,  or 
through  appreciation  by  the  Franciscans  of  the  advantages  of  har- 
monious construction,  or  through  both,  we  have  in  the  New  Mexico 
Missions  a  new  type  —  quite  distinct  from  the  Spanish  Colonial. 

New  Mexico  has  made  a  fine  beginning  towards  the 
perfection  of  that  which  is  indigenous  to  its  own  soil. 
Thousands  will  come,  the  traveled  and  cultured  of  the 
world,  familiar  with  the  highest  expression  of  the  Gothic, 
Grecian,  Roman,  Egyptian,  Hindoo,  Tartarian,  Chinese, 


256    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

Japanese  and  other  forms  of  architecture  who  will  stand 
before  the  Art  Museum  in  Santa  Fe  and  other  less  pre- 
tentious specimens  of  New  Mexican  architecture  and  will 
find  in  them  a  peculiar  attractiveness,  a  simple  and  funda- 
mental purity  which  cannot  fail  to  claim  admiration  and 
worthy  praise. 


CHAPTER  XV 

THE    PUEBLO    OF   TAOS 

Taos  —  pronounced  Towse,  in  one  syllable,  and  not 
Tay-os,  to  rhyme  with  chaos  —  is  the  northernmost  of 
the  Pueblos  of  New  Mexico,  and  of  the  United  States. 
It  is  the  last  outpost  of  the  civilization  of  the  sedentary 
and  home-loving,  field-cultivating  Indians  before  the 
home  of  the  wild  and  nomad  Ute,  Comanche  and  other 
of  the  plains  Indians  were  reached. 

Ever  since  it  has  been  known  to  the  white  man  Taos 
has  been  a  place  of  romance.  Visited  by  all  the  earlier 
explorers  who  traversed  the  Southwest,  it  was  a  rendez- 
vous well  known  to  the  American  trappers.  Here  came 
Kit  Carson  long  before  the  American  occupancy  of  New 
Mexico,  and  here  he  settled  down  and  made  his  perma- 
nent home  for  many  years.  He,  with  many  other  trad- 
ers, scouts  and  trappers,  made  this  their  outfitting  post  for 
their  expeditions  to  the  West  and  North,  even  to  the  far- 
away Pacific,  and  it  rivaled,  if  not  surpassed,  in  commer- 
cial importance,  its  Southern  neighbour  of  greater  Span- 
ish pretensions,  Santa  Fe. 

In  those  days  it  was  no  uncommon  thing  to  find  the 
narrow  streets  of  the  Spanish-Mexican  town  crowded 
with  visitors,  dressed  in  the  rude  costumes  of  the  pioneers 
and  trappers.  Great  strings  of  mules  strained  in  the 
harness  and  dragged  gigantic  canvas-covered  prairie- 
schooners,  with  their  single  or  double  trailers,  bearing 
supplies,  merchandise  and  mining  machinery  for  those 
who  were  fortunate  enough  to  need  them.     Wild  mus- 

257 


258    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

tangs  and  broncos  dashed  hither  and  thither,  ridden  by 
men  who  appeared  even  wilder  than  the  animals  they 
rode.  Here  and  there  a  white  man,  or  an  Indian  of 
striking  dignity  of  mien  and  character  might  be  seen 
walking  through  the  commoner  mass,  and  adding  a  new 
note  to  the  scene.  Such  men  as  Carlos  Beaubien,  Colonel 
Ceran  St.  Vrain,  Lucien  B.  Maxwell, —  who  gained  the 
great  Maxwell  grant  from  the  Mexican  government,  Gov- 
ernor Bent,  and  earlier  still,  Padre  Martinez,  who  pub- 
lished, in  Taos,  the  first  newspaper  issued  west  of  the 
Missouri  River,  in  what  is  now  United  States  territory. 
This  was  in  1835.  He  was  one  of  those  proud  and 
haughty  educated  Spaniards  who  regarded  the  American 
as  an  intruder.  This  land  belonged  to  the  Spanish  by 
right  of  conquest,  and  not  one  foot  of  it  would  he  have 
yielded  to  the  hated  gringo.  It  is  generally  conceded 
that  he  was  largely  instrumental  in  fomenting  the  In- 
dian and  Mexican  rebellion  of  1847,  the  chief  battle  of 
which  was  fought  at  the  Pueblo  of  Taos,  where  the  old 
Franciscan  Mission  Church,  built  over  a  century  before, 
was  battered  down  by  the  cannon  balls  of  the  American 
troops  under  the  command  of  Col.  Sterling  Price. 

It  must  not  be  overlooked  that  there  really  are  three 
places  called  Taos,  each  of  which  has  a  personality,  an 
individuality,  of  its  own.  First  in  order  of  founding 
is  the  Indian  Pueblo.  This  is  known  by  the  thousands 
of  photographs  and  engravings  of  it  seen  in  numberless 
publications  of  the  past  fifty  years,  its  several-storied 
communal  houses,  built  of  adobe,  making  a  striking  and 
fascinating  picture,  redolent  of  mystery,  surprise,  and 
Indian  secrecy. 

They  were  first  seen  by  the  white  race  in  1541  by 
Francisco  Barrio-Nuevo,  a  captain  of  Coronado's  Expe- 
dition, who  found  a  wall  of  protection  around  the  pueblo, 


The  Pueblo  of  Taos 259 

part  of  which  still  stands.  In  July,  1598,  Juan  de  Onate 
visited  Taos,  and  received  the  submission  of  its  proud 
and  haughty  people,  and  a  few  weeks  later  Padre  Fran- 
cisco de  Zamora  established  a  Franciscan  mission  for 
them  and  became  their  guide  in  the  new  religion  their 
conquerors  forced  upon  them.  In  1629  the  Pueblo  had  a 
population  of  2,500  inhabitants.  When  the  great  In- 
dian rebellion  of  1680  —  that  for  a  time  threatened  the 
complete  overthrow  of  Spanish  rule  in  New  Mexico  — 
broke  out,  Taos  rose  with  the  rest  of  the  Indians  and 
drove  out  the  hated  invader.  But,  like  the  rest,  it  yielded 
to  the  power,  or  cajolements,  or  both,  of  Diego  de  Var- 
gas, and  never  again  successfully  revolted  against  the 
outside  rule  —  Spanish,  Mexican,  American  —  forced 
upon  it. 

To-day  its  members  are  singularly  free  from  the  white 
man's  influence.  They  still  preserve  their  aboriginal 
customs  of  society,  religion  and  family.  While  they  do 
not  absolutely  prohibit  the  whites  from  visiting  them, 
there  is  no  great  sociability  or  cordiality  in  their  inter- 
course. To  the  artist  colony  of  Taos  this  aloofness  is  an 
advantage.  It  secures  more  primitive  conditions  for 
their  pictures,  more  quaintness,  strangeness,  in  the  life 
of  their  subjects. 

While  the  Indian  is  almost  perpetually  engaged  in 
religious  ceremonial,  the  whites  know  little  of  this,  save 
at  the  one  great  festival  of  San  Geronimo,  which  oc- 
curs in  late  September.  For  scores  of  miles  around 
Mexicans  and  Americans  spend  days  in  preparation  for 
their  visit  to  this  annual  festival.  At  Fernando  de  Taos 
—  the  modern  Taos  —  the  native  Mexican  population  is 
as  busy  and  excited  as  a  hive  of  bees.  They  are  strug- 
gling to  get  in  their  harvest,  do  their  annual  trading, 
cook  up  great  supplies  of  foods  and  dukes  for  visiting 


260    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

relatives  and  friends,  weaving  additional  blankets,  making 
new  festival  dresses,  hats  and  gewgaws  of  a  general  char- 
acter, so  that  they  will  be  fully  prepared  for  this  one 
great  event  of  the  year. 

At  the  pueblo  the  bustle  and  hurry,  the  industry  and 
expenditure  of  energy,  are  not  less  in  exercise,  though 
the  stolid  and  quiet  demeanour  of  the  Indians  would  de- 
ceive all  but  the  well-informed. 

Herds  of  ponies  are  dashing  around  the  circular  en- 
closures tramping  out  the  yellow  wheat,  urged  to  a  fast 
trot  by  a  happy,  singing  Indian  boy  who  uses  his  long 
whip  lash  on  the  laggards ;  the  squaws  are  busy  replaster- 
ing  the  church  and  baking  in  the  out-door  oval  adobe 
ovens.  Bands  of  Apaches  arrive  several  days  before  the 
festival  and  their  tepees  dot  the  camping  sites  near  the 
Pueblo.  As  soon  as  located  the  squaws  begin  to  weave 
their  beautiful  baskets  and  gather  a  harvest  of  wild  plums, 
which  they  dry  in  the  sun  and  pack  back  to  their  own 
country  for  winter  use. 

These  camps  of  the  Jicarilla  Apaches  are  one  of  the 
most  picturesque  sights  of  the  occasion,  with  the  chil- 
dren and  papooses,  dogs,  ponies,  tepees,  costumes  and 
busy  camp-life  lived  in  true  plain  Indian  style,  even  to 
cooking  and  eating  out-of-doors,  after  the  manner  of 
their  ancestors  of  a  thousand  years  ago. 

Long  trains  of  fruit  wagons,  canvas-covered,  begin 
to  arrive  from  as  far  away  as  Embudo,  Alcalde,  Espanola, 
and  during  the  last  days  of  September  come  the  blanket- 
weavers  from  Chimayo,  and  the  pottery-makers  from  San 
Juan  and  Santa  Clara  Pueblos  with  their  wares.  The 
neighbouring  Picuris  Indians  make  their  annual  visit, 
crossing  the  mountain  trails  from  the  south. 

Merry-go-rounds  are  erected,  generally  at  the  last  mo- 
ment, and  the  native  Mexican,  American  and  Indian  chil- 


The  Pueblo  of  Taos 261 

dren  all  push  and  struggle  together  for  places  on  the 
favourite  wooden  ponies.  On  the  evening  of  September 
29th  the  bustle  and  confusion  is  at  its  height.  Automo- 
bile, camp-wagon  and  equestrian  parties  arrive  in  such 
numbers  that  the  hotels  and  rooming-places  begin  to  over- 
flow. Scores  of  people  bring  tents,  or  camp  out  in  less 
pretentious  fashion.  The  beautiful  Sunset  Dance  takes 
place  at  the  Pueblo  between  5  and  6  p.  m.  Later  on  sev- 
eral bailcs  (dances)  are  in  full  swing  and  the  crowd  re- 
tires late,  only  to  be  up  and  gone  early  the  next  morning, 
when  the  rush  is  Puebloward  to  witness  the  great  relay 
race  which  starts  about  8  o'clock.  This  race  is  the  prin- 
cipal event  of  the  day  and  is  worth  a  journey  from  far 
places  to  witness.  It  is  really  a  prayer  ceremony,  a  hal- 
lelujah of  thanksgiving,  the  Indians'  old-time  Harvest 
Festival,  celebrated  long  before  the  Spanish  conquista- 
dores  set  foot  on  New  Mexican  soil. 

The  race  is  followed  by  a  dance,  and  about  noon  a 
recess  is  taken  until  later  in  the  afternoon,  when  the 
ceremonial  sports  of  the  Delight  Makers  entertain  the 
crowd  until  sunset. 

The  spectacular  sight  of  the  relay  race  is  a  scene  never 
to  be  forgotten.  The  four  hundred  yards  of  race  track 
reminds  one  who  has  seen  it  of  the  river  Thames  on  the 
day  of  the  great  annual  regatta  between  the  crews  of  Ox- 
ford and  Cambridge.  One  sees  the  same  moving  kalei- 
doscopic colours  and  forms,  only  in  place  of  the  silvery 
gray  river  over  which  the  flow  of  colour  moves,  one  sees 
the  gray  sand  of  the  track  shining  in  the  September  sun- 
light. 

What  a  sight  it  is  to  see  the  great  five-storied  com- 
munal buildings,  and  especially  the  north  Pyramid,  over- 
flowing with  life  and  colour!  All  the  plaza  in  front  is 
packed  with  the  motley  crowd,  cheering  and  urging  on 


262     New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

the  runners  as  they  struggle  to  the  end  of  the  course  where 
fresh  partners  crouch  to  spring  away  and  take  up  the 
burden  of  the  long  race.  Cheers  rend  the  air,  individual 
shouts  and  yells,  addressed  to  some  particular  favourite 
or  laggard,  occasionally  pierce  through  the  vocal  con- 
fusion, and  the  loud  applause  that  greets  any  particular 
spurt  of  speed  or  exhibition  of  good  generalship  is  echoed 
and  reechoed  even  to  the  mountains  and  ravines  to  the 
east. 

This  race  and  its  later  accompaniments  is  a  sight  once 
seen  that  can  never  be  forgotten. 

It  should  not  be  overlooked  that  it  was  here  at  Taos 
that  Thierlieu  Lieurance  gained  so  many  of  the  melodies 
referred  to  in  the  chapter  on  Indian  music. 

But  there  is  another  Taos  besides  the  Indian  Pueblo, 
and  that  is  the  Spanish  or  Mexican  town  of  Taos,  founded 
late  in  the  eighteenth  century,  and  dedicated  to  San 
Fernando  de  Taos.  This  has  been  shortened  to  the  curt, 
one-syllabled  Taos,  and  this  is  the  Mexican  and  American 
town  we  think  of  as  the  home  of  the  Art  Colony,  and 
where  the  business  of  the  whole  valley  is  transacted. 
Here  Kit  Carson's  home  is  shown,  and  the  great  scout's 
grave.  Near  by  is  the  grave  of  that  restless,  proud  spirit, 
Padre  Martinez,  who  never  forgave  the  gringos.  The 
place  is  redolent  of  memories  of  these  old  heroes  of  a  by- 
gone age.  But  it  is  also  the  home  of  a  large  number  of 
the  Penitente  Brothers,  to  whom  I  have  largely  devoted 
a  later  chapter.  Here  it  was  from  one  of  their  moradas 
that  I  secured  the  photographs  of  the  Christ  on  the  Cross, 
Saints  and  the  Carreta  del  Muerto  (Carriage  of  death), 
one  of  which  is  here  reproduced. 

There  used,  also,  to  be  one  of  the  most  interesting  of 
the  old  Franciscan  Mission  structures  located  here.  It 
was  used,  however,  as  a  parish  church,  and  the  good 


Photograph   by    George    Wharton   Jame 

"CHRIST  OX  THE  CROSS,"  IN  THE  MORADA   AT  TAOS. 


The  Pueblo  of  Taos  263 

priest,  having  a  perpetual  war  to  wage  against  the  rav- 
ages of  the  weather,  and  to  keep  the  church  in  a  proper 
condition  for  worship,  resolved  to  settle  the  whole  prob- 
lem by  pulling  down  the  old  building  and  substituting  a 
modern  one  in  its  stead.  The  fact  that  he  bore  the  larger 
part  of  the  cost  attests  to  the  nobility  and  self-abnegation 
of  his  beautiful  soul,  yet  does  not  lessen  our  regret  that 
the  old  historic  structure  has  gone. 

A  few  miles  away,  however,  is  the  third  Taos,  known 
as  Ranchos  de  Taos,  and  here  compensation  is  found  in 
the  loss  of  the  San  Fernando  de  Taos  Mission  in  an- 
other quaint  Mission,  built,  I  believe,  in  1778,  and  which 
is  well  worth  a  visit. 

Taos  is  not  to  be  reached  immediately  by  any  rail- 
way, though  the  branch  line  of  the  Denver  and  Rio 
Grande  which  runs  from  Denver  to  Santa  Fe,  has  a 
station  28  miles  away.  From  this  station  one  goes  by 
auto-stage.  There  are  two  or  three  stage-lines  but  the 
informed  never  goes  by  any  other  stage  than  that  owned 
by  John  Gunn.  John  used  to  run  the  old  stage-coaches, 
and  he  and  his  father  owned  the  old  toll-bridge  across 
the  Rio  Grande,  deep  down  in  the  canyon  gloom  through 
which  one  must  pass  in  order  to  reach  Taos. 

When  the  automobile  came  to  stay  John  did  not  hesi- 
tate to  adopt  the  new  method  of  locomotion.  In  spite  of 
rough  roads,  which  no  amount  of  persuasion  could  get 
Mexican  and  other  poco-tiempo-lov'mg  officials  to  im- 
prove, John  put  auto-stages  on  his  line,  and  proceeded  to 
run  them  himself.  The  same  individuality  he  had  exer- 
cised in  operating  his  old  Concord  wagon  stages  was  im- 
mediately apparent  in  his  operation  of  the  auto-stages, 
and  every  traveler  of  the  Southwest  who  has  been  over 
the  road  has  some  story  to  tell  of  John  and  his  interesting 
methods. 


264     New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

John  is  a  daring  driver,  but  far  from  a  reckless  one. 
There  is  a  vast  difference  between  the  two.  Going  down 
the  steep  road  into  the  canyon  of  the  Rio  Grande,  and 
climbing  out  on  the  other  side,  requires  daring,  combined 
with  skill  and  knowledge.  One  instinctively  feels  that 
John  Gunn  possesses  the  proper  combination,  and  you 
whirl  around  dangerous  curves,  look  down  frightful 
precipices  and  gaze  off  where  the  road  runs  into  nothing- 
ness with  perfect  equanimity  because  he  is  at  the  wheel. 
And  in  and  through  it  all  his  quiet  and  quaint  humour 
flows  like  a  golden  thread.  Just  at  the  most  critical 
time,  when  the  timid  tenderfoot  is  holding  her  breath 
and  leaning  over  to  the  left  because  of  the  "  fearful  and 
yawning  precipice  "  to  the  right,  John  nonchalantly  in- 
terjects one  of  his  most  humorous  sallies,  and  one  laughs 
in  spite  of  "  fears  within'"  or  "  foes  without." 

The  ride  itself  is  a  wonderfully  scenic  one.  Through 
miles  of  pinion  and  cedar,  in  sight  of  the  snowy  peaks  of 
the  range  that  hovers  protectingly  over  Taos,  until  the 
deep  and  gloomy  canyon  of  the  Rio  Grande  is  reached, 
one  dashes,  over  good  roads.  Here  one  gasps  at  the  very 
idea  of  daring  to  brave  those  awful  deeps.  But  it  means 
nothing  to  John.  After  a  careful  survey  of  tires,  engine, 
brakes  and  the  strapped-on  baggage  John  "  let's  her  go, 
Gallagher,"  and  without  a  quiver,  gets  you  across  to  the 
other  side.  If  it  is  meal-time,  however,  you  stop  long 
enough  at  the  old  Dunn  hotel  down  beneath,  to  get  a  real, 
old-fashioned,  hearty,  satisfactory  meal  of  pioneer  days 
and  then  start  on  the  upward  climb  well  fortified  —  at 
least  as  far  as  the  stomach  is  concerned  —  for  whatever 
may  occur. 

Taos  is  the  northermost  of  the  Pueblos  of  the  Rio 
Grande.  It  is  the  most  interesting  of  them  all,  yet  there 
is  not  one  of  these  Pueblos  that  is  not  worth  visiting. 


The  Pueblo  of  Taos 265 

Mr.  and  Mrs.  Saunders'  book,  referred  to  in  the  bibli- 
ography, will  give  the  interested  reader  further  knowledge 
of  them,  and  he  who  visits  New  Mexico,  and  is  wise,  will 
make  it  his  business  to  see  them  all. 


CHAPTER  XVI 

THE    ANTIQUITIES    OF    NEW    MEXICO.       ITS    ANCIENT 
DWELLINGS  —  ITS    MISSION    CHURCHES 

Many  of  the  other  chapters  of  this  book  have  been 
written  in  vain  if  they  have  not  demonstrated  to  the 
reader  how  full  New  Mexico  is  of  areas  of  antiquity. 
From  one  end  to  the  other,  in  all  directions,  it  abounds 
in  places  of  deepest  interest.  Indeed  it  must  truthfully 
be  said  that  largely  within  its  confines  the  science  of 
American  Archaeology  has  been  born,  and  its  leaders  and 
masters  trained.  Here,  in  the  earliest  years  came  Simp- 
son, Powell,  Stevenson,  Jackson,  Bandelier,  Holmes, 
Cushing,  Matthews,  Ten  Kate,  Fewkes,  the  Mooneys, 
Hodge,  Hough,  and  finally,  Hewett,  the  directing  genius 
of  the  School  of  American  Archaeology,  together  with  the 
accomplished  and  growing  band  he  is  gathering  around 
him,  including  Chapman,  Neusbaum,  Walter,  Vierra, 
Harrington  and  others. 

It  is  not  my  purpose,  in  this  brief  and  merely  sug- 
gestive chapter,  even  to  outline  the  location  and  gen- 
eral description  of  the  chief  of  New  Mexico's  antiquities. 
Many  references  are  made  to  them  throughout  the  volume, 
and  the  interested  reader  is  advised  that  from  no  frag- 
mentary sketch  can  he  begin  to  gain  the  knowledge  he 
needs.  Reasonably  complete  information  may  be  ob- 
tained from  Dr.  Edgar  L.  Hewett  of  Santa  Fe,  N.  M.,  of 
all  that  will  interest  the  student,  the  serious  explorer, 
or  the  casual  tourist,  in  the  papers  and  reports  of  the 
School  of  American  Archaeology.     Suffice  it  to  say  that 

266 


The  Antiquities  of  New  Mexico        267 

in  this  field  alone  any  intelligent  person  can  find  ma- 
terial of  sufficient  interest  to  justify  a  lengthy  annual 
visit  to  New  Mexico  for  an  average  lifetime,  and  the 
subject  would  then  be  far  from  exhausted.  In  a  volume 
now  about  to  be  sent  to  the  press  1  I  have  given  as  full 
accounts,  illustrated,  as  is  possible,  of  all  the  Cliff  and 
Caveate  ruins  of  this  fascinating  area. 

The  same  impossible  sense  of  limitation  is  felt  in 
dealing  with  the  old  Franciscan  Mission  Churches  of 
New  Mexico.  No  chapter  can  do  the  subject  justice. 
One  must  read  their  history  in  the  other  chapters  and 
then  fill  in  the  pictures  as  they  arise.  In  each  Indian  com- 
munity the  zealous  padres  forced,  cajoled,  won,  pleaded 
their  way.  They  had  but  one  object,  one  work.  Their 
slogan  was  the  exclamation  of  Saint  Paul :  "  This  one 
thing  I  do."  They  had  set  forth  from  Spain,  and  later, 
from  Mexico,  to  convert  the  heathen  aborigines  of  New 
Mexico  to  the  joys  and  the  heavenly  assurances  of  Chris- 
tianity. Under  the  teaching  and  guidance  of  Mother 
Church  they  were  safe  from  damnation,  here  and  here- 
after; without  it,  there  was  no  hope.  Hence  their  fren- 
zied zeal,  their  indifference  to  danger,  their  absolute  dis- 
regard of  martyrdom,  their  devoted  persistence  in  their 
self-imposed,  arduous  and  ungratefully  received  tasks. 
The  Indians  in  the  main  hated  them.  They  misunder- 
stood their  purpose.  They  refused  to  be  saved;  and  all 
this  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  the  padres  reported  thousands, 
hundreds  of  thousands,  who  were  already  caught  by  the 
"  gospel  net." 

The  King  of  Spain,  his  Council,  the  Viceroy  of  New 
Mexico,  and,  of  course,  the  leaders  of  the  Franciscan 

1  The  Prehistoric  Cliff  and  Cave  Dwellings  of  the  South  West. 
To  be  published  in  1920  by  the  Radiant  Life  Press,  Pasadena,  Cali- 
fornia. 


268    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

order,  were  alike  urgent  in  pushing  forward  this  work, 
and  delighted  at  all  new  reports  of  enlarged  spiritual 
progress.  As  quickly  as  possible  friars  were  sent  to  oc- 
cupy the  new  fields,  and  each  man  was  urged,  expected, 
to  secure  the  erection  of  a  Mission  Church  in  the  Pueblo 
to  which  he  was  sent.  Hence  there  began  to  spring  up, 
with  mushroom-like  rapidity,  churches  on  every  hand, 
and  this  a  full  century  before  the  advent  of  the  Francis- 
cans into  California.  Zuni,  Acoma,  the  far-away  Hopi, 
Isleta,  San  Juan  de  los  Caballeros,  Santa  Fe,  Santa  Clara, 
Santo  Domingo,  Zia,  Jemez,  San  Ildefonso,  Santa  Cruz, 
Picuris,  Pecos,  Tesuque,  and  far-away  Taos,  in  the  north, 
speedily  had  their  own  buildings,  and  later,  the  Villa 
of  Albuquerque  was  blessed  by  the  addition  of  its  church 
structure.  Indians  and  settlers  alike  must  be  provided 
for,  and  places  like  Chimayo  sprang  into  existence  around 
the  hallowed  Sanctuario. 

As  I  have  shown  in  the  chapter  on  Mission  Architec- 
ture, these  structures  were  of  an  entirely  different  type 
from  the  later  California  Mission  buildings.  They  be- 
long to  another  people  and  an  entirely  different  location, 
and  it  is  a  matter  of  great  congratulation  that  at  last  New 
Mexico  has  found  herself  upon  this  matter  and  set  it 
forth  with  scientific  accuracy  and  literary  skill  before 
the  world. 

For  the  history  of  these  Mission  churches  and  their 
connection  with  the  tragic  rebellion  of  1680,  and  of  the 
never-ending  struggles  between  the  new  and  the  old  re- 
ligions, the  reader  must  be  referred  to  Governor  L. 
Bradford  Prince's  excellent  work — The  Mission 
Churches  of  New  Mexico. 


CHAPTER  XVII 

THE   AMERICAN  'PASSION    PLAY 

For  many  years  Europeans  and  Americans  have  flocked 
to  see  the  famous  Passion  Play  of  Oberammergau.  Noted 
writers  have  vied  with  each  other  in  depicting  the  deep 
earnestness  with  which  the  peasantry  of  this  remote  vil- 
lage reenact  the  chief  scenes  in  the  Passion  of  Christ. 
Photographs  by  thousands  and  films  by  the  hundreds  of 
reels  have  been  made  of  the  play  so  that  it  could  be 
brought  to  non-travelers  the  civilized  world  over,  until 
now  the  Oberammergau  Passion  Play  is  almost  as  familiar 
as  household  words. 

Yet  if  one  were  to  affirm  that  in  the  heart  of  New 
Mexico  a  score  of  Passion  Plays  might  be  seen  each 
year,  each  and  every  one  of  them  conducted  with  desper- 
ate earnestness,  and  a  grim  and  stern  fidelity  to  the  cruel 
punishments  inflicted  upon  the  Saviour  of  mankind,  and 
that  each  year  there  is  every  reason  to  suppose  that 
more  than  one  devotee  loses  his  life  through  actual  cru- 
cifixion, it  need  not  be  surprising  if  such  affirmation  were 
met  with  scornful  incredulity.  Apropos  of  this  incredul- 
ity let  me  relate  the  following  personal  experience. 

Twenty-five  or  more  years  ago  I  gave  a  lecture  in  the 
State  of  New  York,  before  a  learned  Association,  upon 
the  American  Southwest,  wherein  I  portrayed  several 
peculiar  phases  of  the  lives  of  the  simple  primitive  peo- 
ples —  Indians  and  Mexicans.  Among  other  ceremonies 
which  I  described  were  those  of  the  Penitente  Brothers 

269 


270    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

—  the  self-whippers  and  self-crucifiers  —  whose  rites  I 
had  seen. 

The  morning  following  my  lecture  the  President  of 
the  Association  apologized  to  its  members  for  the  wild 
and  incredible  stories  I  had  told,  as  no  less  an  authority 
than  the  Encyclopedia  Britannica  explicitly  stated  that  the 
last  procession  of  the  self-whippers,  the  penitent es,  or 
flagellant  brothers,  had  taken  place  in  Lisbon,  Spain, 
in  the  year  1820,  and  of  course,  it  was  preposterous  to 
imagine  that  such  events  could  occur  in  the  heart  of  the 
United  States,  in  this  advanced  year  of  our  Lord.  As 
soon  as  I  was  informed  of  this  criticism  I  appeared  be- 
fore the  Association,  absolved  the  president  of  any  ill  in- 
tent, but  assured  him  that  my  eyesight  bore  me  far  more 
reliable  testimony  than  all  the  encyclopedias  on  earth. 
He  might  believe  that  the  penitentcs,  the  Hopi  snake- 
dancers,  and  the  Navaho  fire-dancers  were  impossible,  and 
the  Encyclopedia  Britannica  might  assert  they  did  not 
exist,  but  in  such  cases  I  must  respectfully,  modestly,  yet 
positively  affirm  that  my  authority  was  superior  even 
to  that  of  so  hoary,  complacent,  and  recognized  a  standby 
as  the  time-honoured  Encyclopedia. 

The  attitude  of  the  president  of  the  New  York  Asso- 
ciation is  easy  to  understand.  It  does  seem  incredible 
that  in  this  age  there  should  be  people  in  our  highly  civi- 
lized land  who  adhere  to  customs  so  strange  and  foreign 
to  the  thought  of  those  who  are  the  exponents  of  its 
modern  culture.  The  penitentes,  however,  not  only  ex- 
isted at  the  time  when  I  spoke,  but  they  exist  to-day. 
In  spite  of  censure,  ostracism,  and  the  ban  of  Mother 
Church  these  simple-minded,  ignorant  peons  follow  the 
customs  handed  down  to  them  from  the  centuries  of  the 
past,  and  with  a  steadfast  devotion,  as  pathetic  as  it  is 
lamentable,  still  whip  themselves  until  the  blood  streams 


The  American  Passion  Play  271 


down  their  bare  backs  as  they  go  their  wearisome  way 
from  their  moradas  to  their  chosen  "hills  of  Calvary." 
This  practice  of  flagellation  is  by  no  means  new.  For 
centuries  it  has  been  followed  in  individual  cases  by 
hermits,  monks,  nuns  and  others,  who  sought  by  their  self- 
punishments  not  only  the  discipline  their  consciences  dic- 
tated that  they  deserved  for  their  sins,  but  also  the  re- 
ward of  those  who  shared  the  punishments  of  Christ 
prior  to  His  Crucifixion.  Their  favourite  quotations 
were : 

Beloved,  think  it  not  strange  concerning  the  fiery  trial  which  is  to 
try  you,  as  though  some  strange  thing  happened  unto  you ;  but  re- 
joice, inasmuch  as  you  are  partakers  of  Christ's  sufferings;  that, 
when  his  glory  shall  be  revealed,  you  may  be  glad  also  with  ex- 
ceeding joy. —  i  Peter  iv,  12-13. 

We  are  joint  heirs  with  Christ;  if  so  be  that  we  suffer  with  him, 
that  we  may  be  also  glorified  together. —  Romans  viii,  17. 

Knowing  that  as  ye  are  partakers  of  the  sufferings  (of  Christ) 
so  shall  ye  be  also  of  the  consolation. —  2  Cor.  i,  7. 

It  is  a  faithful  saying:  For  if  we  be  dead  with  him,  we  shall  also 
live  with  him:  if  we  suffer,  we  shall  also  reign  with  him:  if  we  deny 
him,  he  also  will  deny  us. —  2  Timothy  ii,  11-12. 

The  reasoning  of  the  penitential  order  is  very  simple. 
In  effect  it  is  as  follows :  Christ  is  our  Exemplar  and 
Saviour.  While  He  did  not  whip  Himself,  He  was 
scourged  on  His  way  to  the  cross,  the  curse  of  which 
He  willingly  bore  on  our  account.  As  He  willingly  bore 
His  suffering  though  inflicted  by  others,  so  should  we 
bear  them  inflicted  by  ourselves  or  others,  that,  thereby, 
we  may  be  accounted  worthy  to  partake  of  the  highest 
joys  of  heaven  which  He  has  gone  to  prepare  for  us. 

Boileau  in  his  fascinatingly  interesting  Historia  Flagel- 
lantium,  traces  the  custom  of  self -whipping  from  the 
earliest  ages,  and  devotes  considerable  space  to  showing 
its  practice  among  the  Carmelites,  Cistercians,  Trap- 
pists,  Jesuits,  Dominicans,  and  Franciscans.     But  it  was 


272    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

among  the  more  stern  and  ascetic  of  the  latter  brother- 
hood that  the  Order  of  Flagellant es  became  a  recognized 
society.  The  sect  first  made  its  appearance  in  Italy  in 
the  year  12 10,  and  the  monk,  St.  Justin  of  Padua,  gives 
the  following  account  of  it  in  the  Chronicon  Ursitius 
Basiliensis.1 

When  all  Italy  was  sullied  with  crimes  of  every  kind,  a  certain 
sudden  superstition,  hitherto  unknown  to  the  world,  first  seized  the 
inhabitants  of  Perusa,  afterwards  the  Romans,  and  then  almost  all 
the  nations  of  Italy.  To  such  a  degree  were  they  affected  with  the 
fear  of  God,  that  noble  as  well  as  ignoble  persons,  young  and  old, 
even  children  five  years  of  age,  would  go  naked  about  the  streets 
without  any  sense  of  shame,  walking  in  public,  two  and  two,  in  the 
manner  of  solemn  procession.  Every  one  of  them  held  in  his  hand 
a  scourge,  made  of  leather  thongs,  and  with  tears  and  groans  they 
lashed  themselves  on  their  backs  till  the  blood  ran :  all  the  while 
weeping  and  giving  tokens  of  the  same  bitter  affliction,  as  if  they  had 
really  been  spectators  of  the  passion  of  our  Saviour,  imploring  the 
forgiveness  of  God  and  His  Mother,  and  praying  that  He  who  had 
been  appeased  by  the  repentance  of  so  many  sinners,  would  not  dis- 
dain theirs.  And  not  only  in  the  day  time,  but  likewise  during  the 
nights,  hundreds,  thousands,  and  ten  thousands  of  these  penitents 
ran,  notwithstanding  the  rigour  of  winter,  about  the  streets  and  in 
the  churches,  with  -lighted  wax  candles  in  their  hands,  and  preceded 
by  the  priests,  who  carried  crosses  and  banners  along  with  them, 
and  with  humility  prostrated  themselves  before  the  altars :  the  same 
scenes  were  to  be  seen  in  small  towns  and  villages ;  so  that  the 
mountains  and  the  fields  seemed  to  resound  alike  the  voice  of  men 
who  were  crying  to  God.  All  musical  instruments  and  love  songs 
ceased  to  be  heard.  The  only  music  that  prevailed  both  in  town  and 
country  was  that  of  the  lugubrious  voice  of  the  penitent,  whose 
mournful  accents  might  have  moved  hearts  of  flint :  and  even  the 
eyes  of  the  obdurate  sinner  could  not  refrain  from  tears.  Nor  were 
women  exempt  from  the  general  spirit  of  devotion  we  mention :  for 
not  only  those  among  the  common  people,  but  also  matrons  and 
young  ladies  of  noble  families,  would  perform  the  same  mortifica- 
tions with  modesty  in  their  own  rooms.  Then  those  who  were  at 
enmity  with  one  another  became  again  friends.  Usurers  and  rob- 
bers hastened  to  restore  their  ill-gotten  riches  to  their  right  owners. 

1  As  quoted  by  Rev.  Wm.  M.  Cooper  in  his  History  of  the  Rod. 
W.  Reeves,  London. 


The  American  Passion  Play 273 

Others,  who  were  contaminated  with  different  crimes,  confessed 
them  with  humility,  and  renounced  their  vanities.  Gaols  were 
opened;  prisoners  were  delivered;  and  banished  persons  permitted  to 
return  to  their  native  habitations.  So  many  and  so  great  works  of 
sanctity  and  Christian  charity,  in  short,  were  then  performed  by  both 
men  and  women,  that  it  seemed  as  if  a  universal  apprehension  had 
seized  mankind,  that  the  divine  power  was  preparing  either  to 
consume  them  by  fire  or  destroy  them  by  shaking  the  earth,  or  some 
other  of  those  means  which  divine  justice  knows  how  to  employ  for 
avenging  crimes.  Such  a  sudden  repentance,  which  had  thus  dif- 
fused itself  all  over  Italy  and  had  even  reached  other  countries,  not 
only  the  unlearned,  but  wise  persons  also  admired.  They  wondered 
whence  such  a  vehement  fervour  of  piety  could  have  proceeded : 
especially  since  such  public  penances  and  ceremonies  had  been  un- 
heard of  in  former  times,  had  not  been  approved  by  the  sovereign 
pontiff,  nor  recommended  by  any  preacher  or  person  of  eminence; 
but  had  taken  their  origin  among  simple  persons,  whose  example 
both  learned  and  unlearned  had  alike  followed. 

To  St.  Anthony,  of  Padua, —  the  beloved  saint  of  the 
Franciscan  order,  the  miracle  worker,  the  monk  who  was 
so  pure  in  heart  that  God  visited  upon  him  the  inestimable 
and  blessed  privilege  of  holding  the  infant  babe,  Jesus,  in 
his  arms, —  is  accorded  the  distinction,  fanatical  or  praise- 
worthy as  the  reader  may  regard  it,  of  having  organized 
the  solemn  processions  of  flagellantes  that,  for  centuries, 
continued  to  be  seen  throughout  Latin  Europe.  In  1349, 
during  the  time  when  the  Great  Plague  was  raging,  they 
appeared  in  Germany,  and  from  the  chronicle  of  Albert 
of  Strasburg  we  read  that  two  hundred  of  the  self-whip- 
pers  came  from  Schwaben  to  Spira,  under  one  principal 
and  two  subordinate  rulers,  whose  commands  they  im- 
plicitly obeyed.     Here  is  Albert's  account : x 

They  were  met  by  crowds  of  people.  Placing  themselves  within 
a  circle  drawn  on  the  ground,  they  stripped,  leaving  on  their  bodies 
only  a  breech-cloth.  They  then  walked  with  arms  outstretched  like 
a  cross  round  and  round  the  circle  for  a  time,  finally  prostrating 
themselves  on  the  ground.     They  soon  after  rose,  each  striking  his 

1  As  quoted  in  Cooper's  History  of  the  Rod. 


274    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

neighbour  with  a  scourge,  armed  with  knots  and  four  iron  points, 
regulating  their  blows  by  the  singing  of  psalms.  At  a  certain  signal 
the  discipline  ceased,  and  they  threw  themselves  first  on  their  knees, 
then  flat  on  the  ground,  groaning  and  sobbing.  On  rising,  the 
leader  gave  a  short  address,  exhorting  them  to  implore  the  mercy 
of  God  upon  their  benefactors  and  enemies,  and  also  on  the  souls 
in  purgatory.  This  was  followed  by  another  prostration,  and  then 
another  discipline.  Those  who  had  taken  charge  of  the  clothes  now 
came  forward,  and  went  through  the  same  ceremonies. 

Hence  it  will  be  seen  that  the  penitentes  of  the  Ameri- 
can Southwest  —  for  they  are  to  be  found  alike  in  South- 
ern Colorado,  Southern  Utah,  Eastern  Arizona,  and  New 
Mexico, —  have  an  ancient  and  honoured  paternity. 

My  first  experiences  with  the  penitentes  began  in  Raton, 
New  Mexico,  in  1889.  There  I  saw  the  procession  of 
self-whippers,  witnessed  a  crucifixion,  attended  the  scary 
midnight  representation  of  the  horrors  of  the  earth- 
quake that  shook  the  earth  after  Our  Lord's  death,  and 
learned  some  of  the  songs  of  the  Brothers  of  Light. 

Soon  after  this  I  read  Charles  F.  Lummis's  accounts  of 
the  same  ceremonials  as  witnessed  by  him  at  San  Mateo, 
New  Mexico,1  and  the  Rev.  A.  M.  Darley  sent  me  copies 
of  his  La  Hermandad,  which  was  published  in  Pueblo, 
Colorado,  in  April,  1890.  Mr.  Darley  received  his  in- 
formation from  a  converted  Hermano  Mayor  —  Chief 
Brother  —  of  the  Morada  del  Llano,  and  its  publica- 
tion well  nigh  caused  a  dangerous  uprising  among  the 
ignorant  Mexican  population  of  Southern  Colorado. 
Lummis  in  his  larger  work,  published  in  1893,  says: 

Up  to  within  a  decade  the  order  in  this  Territory  numbered  some 
thousands,  with  fraternities  in  towns  of  every  county.  Their  strong- 
holds were  in  Taos,  Mora,  and  Rio  Arriba  counties  where  ten  years 
ago  they  numbered  respectively,  500,  300,  and  1000  members,  approxi- 
mately.    Los   Griegos,  a  hamlet  just  below   Albuquerque,   was  an- 

1  See  Strange  Corners  of  Our  Country,  pp.  90-93,  and  Land  of 
Poco  Ticmpo,  pp.  79-108. 


Photograph   by    George    Wharf  or    J  awes. 

THE  PENITENTE   CROSS   AT   SAN   MATEO. 


The  American  Passion  Play  275 

other  hot-bed  of  them,  and  many  dwelt  in  the  fastnesses  of  the 
Sandia  Mountains  east  of  Albuquerque.  In  1867  there  were  900 
within  a  radius  of  ten  miles  from  Taos.  In  scores  of  lonely  canyons 
throughout  the  Territory,  the  traveler  may  see  to  this  day  the  de- 
serted, low,  stone  houses  with  huge  crosses  leaning  in  slow  decay 
against  their  sides  —  tokens  of  the  bloody  rites  which  the  surround- 
ing hills  once  witnessed.  The  order  was  too  strong  in  earlier  days  to 
be  excommunicated  at  one  fell  swoop ;  and  the  Catholic  Church  — 
to  which  all  the  Penitentes  claim  allegiance  —  went  at  the  work 
with  prudent  deliberation,  lopping  off  a  head  here  and  a  head  there 
in  a  quiet  way,  which  carried  its  full  lesson  without  provoking 
rebellion.  The  policy  has  been  a  successful  one  and  has  been  un- 
flinchingly maintained.  Town  after  town  has  dropped  its  Holy 
Week  celebrations,  fraternity  after  fraternity  has  melted  away  to  _ 
nothingness.  In  the  year  1888  but  three  towns  in  the  Territory  had  L 
Penitente  processions;  and  but  one  —  San  Mateo,  in  the  western  \ 
end  of  Valencia  County  —  enjoyed  a  crucifixion.  J 

I  questioned  the  accuracy  of  this  statement  when  it 
was  made,  for  I,  myself,  have  witnessed  penitente  cere- 
monies since  1889  in  ten  different  moradas,  and  in  this 
year  of  Our  Lord,  1920,  I  venture  the  assertion  that 
there  are  twenty  or  more  moradas  in  the  four  states  I 
have  named,  in  connection  with  which  the  full  ceremonies, 
excepting  perhaps  the  crucifixion,  take  place.  There 
has  been  much  opposition  on  the  part  of  both  whites  and 
Spanish-Americans  of  the  higher  class  to  allowing  the 
facts  to  be  known,  and  those  who  practice  the  rites  have 
been  opposed  to  publicity  ever  since  they  learned  the  bitter 
resentment  with  which  protestants  regarded  their  activi- 
ties. In  this,  as  in  all  cases  where  religious  antagonisms 
are  aroused,  misrepresentation  and  falsification  have  pre- 
vailed. In  one  historical  work  on  New  Mexico,  other- 
wise fairly  reliable,  the  author  claims  that  the  "  suffer- 
ers were  often  the  most  wicked  and  abandoned  criminals," 
and  contends  that  the  exhibitions  were  "  degrading  to 
the  Christian  Faith." 

I  am  free  to  confess  that  to  me  it  seems  that,  if  this 


276    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

first  statement  be  true,  the  self-whipping  would  have  a 
most  beneficial  effect.  I  have  yet  to  find,  in  my  not  al- 
together limited  experience,  a  "  wicked  and  abandoned 
criminal  "  who  has  had  the  grace  publicly  to  confess  his 
wickedness  and  seek  some  measure  of  purging  by  per- 
sonal flagellation. 

As  to  its  being  degrading  to  the  Christian  faith  that  is 
purely  a  matter  of  personal  opinion.  I  am  inclined  to 
have  more  faith  in  the  simple,  stern  earnestness  of  peo- 
ple who  will  whip  themselves  for  their  wrong-doings  than 
I  have  in  the  professions  of  some  people  who  never  for- 
sake their  luxurious  and  sensuous  lives  even  though  they 
make  weekly  protest  that  they  are  followers  of  the  meek 
and  lowly  Jesus  who  had  not  where  to  lay  His  head.  It 
is  easy  to  sing  with  unction  the  hymn : 

Nearer,  my  God,  to  Thee, 
E'en  though  it  be  a  Cross 
That  raiseth  me, 

but  it  is  far  from  easy  to  embrace  or  kiss  the  Cross  and 
actually  suffer  some,  even,  of  its  agony. 

Hence  I  have  had  no  hesitancy  in  preparing  this  full 
and  reliable  account  —  for  I  personally  vouch  for  its  de- 
tailed accuracy  —  of  the  doings  of  Los  Hermanos  dc 
Pcnitentes  (The  Penitent  Brothers). 

To  those  who  wish  to  study  the  history  of  whipping  as 
a  means  of  grace  I  commend  Boileau's  History  of  Flagel- 
lation before  referred  to.  Everything  written  upon  the 
subject  since  the  time  of  his  book  quotes  extensively 
from  it. 

From  the  time  of  San  Antonio  de  Padua  to  the  advent 
of  the  Franciscan  friars  in  the  New  World,  the  penitentes 
have  had  a  varied  history.  Sometimes  encouraged,  at 
other  times  fulminated  against  by  the  popes,  the  spirit 


The  American  Passion  Play 277 

of  desire  to  humiliate  themselves  has  remained,  and  soon 
after  the  Franciscan  Missionaries  were  distributed  and 
settled  in  New  Mexico  the  self-whippers  began  to  ap- 
pear. 

In  the  cathedral  at  Santa  Fe,  in  a  manuscript  dated 
September  17,  1794,  is  what  is  supposed  to  be  the  oldest 
church  record  pertaining  to  the  penitentes  in  the  confines 
of  what  is  now  the  United  States.  It  is  headed :  "  In- 
formation given  to  Governor  Chacon  by  the  Reverend 
P.  Custadio  Cayentano  Jose  Bernal,"  and  a  free  transla- 
tion is  as  follows : 

In  each  of  the  two  related  villages  (Santa  Cruz  and  Santa  Fe)  is 
founded  the  Venerable  Third  Order  of  Penitentes.  This  order  has 
been  in  existence  since  the  earliest  years  of  the  Conquest,  although 
the  exact  year  is  not  known.  It  is  established  with  the  previous 
permission  of  the  Prelates  of  our  Holy  Religion,  as  of  right  its 
immediate  Superiors.  Furthermore,  to  them  pertains  the  right  to 
know  and  regulate  its  affairs  as  necessarily  follows  from  many 
declaratory  and  confirmatory  Bulls  of  many  Popes  of  Rome. 

The  rites  as  actually  conducted  to-day  are  somewhat 
as  follows.  The  customs  at  various  moradas  are  not  ex- 
actly the  same.  The  Chief  Brothers  have  considerable 
latitude  and  there  have  been  slight  variations  in  every 
celebration  witnessed.  But  I  have  checked  up  my  own 
observations  with  those  of  others  who  have  seen  the 
ceremonies  on  several  occasions. 

Wherever  the  penitentes  live  in  large  enough  numbers 
to  form  a  brotherhood,  they  erect  a  morada  for  a  meet- 
ing-place. They  then  proceed  to  elect  ten  officers,  who, 
though  supposed  to  be  elected  annually,  often  serve  for 
a  period  of  years.  They  are:  1.  The  Hermano  Mayor 
(Older  or  Chief  Brother).  He  is  the  head  of  the  local 
organization,  has  general  oversight  of  its  affairs,  di- 
rects its  activities,  and  sees  that  the  other  officers  per- 
form their  respective  duties.     As  his  name  implies  he  is 


278    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

also  regarded  as  an  older  brother  to  whom  the  members 
may  appeal  for  help  when  in  distress  of  any  kind.  He 
settles  disputes  between  the  brothers,  and  often  between 
his  members  and  outsiders.  When  he  is  a  man  of  good 
sound  sense  and  discretion  he  has  great  influence,  quite 
equal  to  that  of  most  of  the  priests  in  their  churches. 

2.  The  Cclador  (Warden).  This  officer  is  the  care- 
taker of  the  morada,  and  under  the  direction  of  the  Chief 
Brother  carries  out  the  sentences  imposed  upon  members 
of  the  brotherhood  for  their  misdeeds. 

3.  The  Coadjutor  (Helper)  cleanses  the  scourges  used 
by  the  flagellantes  in  their  exercises,  and  he  washes  the 
bodies  of  the  participants  after  they  have  completed  their 
penance. 

4.  The  Infermero  (Nurse)  visits  brothers  who  are 
sick,  sees  that  they  secure  proper  attention  and  gener- 
ally attends  to  the  work  of  mercy  of  the  brotherhood. 

5.  The  Mandatario  (Collector)  acts  as  assistant  secre- 
tary and  aids  the  Maestro  de  Novios. 

6.  The  Maestro  de  Novios  (Teacher  of  Novices)  is 
required  to  examine  those  who  seek  admission  into  the 
brotherhood,  and  conjointly  with  the  Mandatario  instructs 
them  in  regard  to  their  obligations  and  duties.  One  of 
the  chief  obligations  imposed  is  that  of  secrecy.  No 
outsider  is  to  know  anything  of  what  transpires  in  the 
morada,  unless  by  authority  of  its  officers.  It  is  this 
feature,  undoubtedly,  equally  with  that  of  the  public 
flagellation,  that  led  the  Catholic  Church  to  place  the 
brotherhood  under  its  ban.  There  are  many  traditions  in 
the  Southwest  of  fearful  punishments  inflicted  upon  those 
brothers  who  have  violated  their  vows.  One  is  of  burial 
alive,  and  there  can  be  no  question  as  to  the  faith  many 
people  have  in  the  truth  of  these  gruesome  reports. 

7.  The  Secretario,  as  his  name  implies,  keeps  the  rec- 


The  American  Passion  Play 279 

ords,  and  officially  confirms  the  decrees  of  the  Hermano 
Mayor. 

8.  The  Sangrador  (Pricker).  This  officer  inflicts  the 
seal  of  the  penitentes  upon  the  backs  of  the  members. 
The  full  seal  is  three  gashes  the  full  length  and  three  the 
width  of  the  back  at  right  angles  to  each  other.  These 
are  cut  with  a  sharp  rough  instrument,  a  piece  of  flint 
or  glass,  called  the  pcdcrnal.  The  Sangrador  also  whips 
the  members  when  he  deems  them  lagging  in  earnestness 
and  enthusiasm  in  their  self-whipping. 

9.  The  Rcsador  (One  who  prays).  This  official  ac- 
companies the  flagellants  upon  their  marches  and  reads 
the  prayers  whilst  they  are  whipping  or  otherwise  pun- 
ishing themselves. 

10.  The  Piter 0  (Piper).  This  is  the  piper  who  plays 
the  hymns  sometimes  with,  and  sometimes  without,  the 
singing  accompaniment  of  the  brotherhood.  It  is  the 
wail  of  this  pipe  made  from  the  cariso  or  reed  —  very 
much  like  a  primitive  oboe  —  of  which  Lummis  thus 
writes : 

Every  Friday  night  in  Lent  the  belated  wayfarer  among  the  inte- 
rior ranges  is  liable  to  be  startled  by  the  hideous  too-ootle-te-too 
of  an  unearthly  whistle  which  wails  over  and  over  its  refrain. 

As  the  midnight  wind  sweeps  that  weird  strain  down  the  lonely 
canyon,  it  seems  the  wail  of  a  lost  spirit.  I  have  known  men  of  tried 
bravery  to  flee  from  that  sound  when  they  heard  it  for  the  first 
time.  A  simple  air  on  a  fife  made  of  cariso  seems  a  mild  matter 
to  read  of;  but  its  wild  shriek,  which  can  be  heard  for  miles,  car- 
ries an  indescribable  terror  with  it.  "  The  oldest  timer "  crosses 
himself  and  looks  askance  when  that  sound  floats  out  to  him  from 
the  mountain  gorges. 

Another  instrument  used  in  the  ceremonies  is  the 
matraca,  the  wooden  rattle  common  in  certain  Catholic 
ceremonials,  which  makes  a  horrible  noise  and  is  used 
in  England  for  frightening  birds  from  growing  corn.    . 


280    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

These  ten  officials  are  known  as  the  Hermanos  de  Luz 
(Brothers  of  Light).  When  an  outsider  wishes  to  join 
the  brotherhood  he  is  carefully  examined  as  to  his  motives 
and  his  sincerity.  This  latter  is  fully  tested,  for  it  is 
affirmed  that  he  must  whip  himself  in  private  and  in 
the  public  procession  for  five  years  before  he  is  admitted 
to  full  brotherhood.  Nor  can  he  hold  office  until  his 
novitiate  is  ended.  No  full-fledged  brother  is  required 
to  whip  himself,  unless  as  a  penance  imposed  for  some 
flagrant  wrong-doing  confessed,  yet  it  is  no  uncommon 
thing  for  an  earnest  penitent  to  impose  a  special  penance 
upon  himself,  and  thus  voluntarily  join  the  whipping  pro- 
cession at  Easter  time. 

It  is  affirmed  by  Lummis  and  others  that  the  brother- 
hood's activities  are  confined  to  the  Lenten  season.  This 
(  is  incorrect.  Naturally  the  imitative  ceremonies  of  the 
Passion  of  Our  Lord  take  place  only  at  that  time,  but 
sessions  are  held  in  the  morada  at  other  times,  especially 
on  All  Saints'  Day  (November  i)  and  at  funerals  of 
members  of  the  brotherhood  or  their  families.  Whip- 
pings are  common  at  these  times,  though  they  are  not  as 
severe  as  during  Holy  Week.  At  San  Rafael  a  friend 
of  mine  has  witnessed  several  funerals  of  penitentes. 
On  one  of  these  occasions  she  wrote  me:  "The  body 
was  wound  around  with  ropes.  Thorns  were  placed 
upon  the  brow,  under  the  arms,  and  in  the  hands,  after 
which  the  clothing  was  put  on  and  a  black  cloth  put  over 
the  head  and  face.  At  the  grave  the  body  was  wrapped 
in  a  sheet  and  so  buried  without  a  coffin.  The  grave 
was  large  and  deep  and  at  one  end  a  hole  was  made, 
into  which  the  head  was  thrust  after  the  body  was  low- 
ered. During  the  whole  ceremony  the  pitero  played  his 
melancholy  melodies  on  his  reed  pipe.  The  night  before 
the    funeral   several   penitente    friends   of   the   deceased 


The  American  Passion  Play 281 

tormed  a  procession  and  whipped  themselves,  and  his 
wife  walked  on  a  pathway  formed  by  chollas,  and  then 
rolled  herself  upon  it,  wounding  her  back  and  breast  with 
thorns." 

The  fast  of  the  Lenten  Season  is  rigidly  observed. 
But  there  are  other  penances  besides  whipping  and  fast- 
ing. The  cholla  or  buckhorn  cactus  (Opuntia  spinosior 
sp.)  is  found  all  over  New  Mexico.  It  is  covered  with 
large  and  small  cruel  thorns,  that,  once  in  the  flesh,  con- 
tinue to  work  their  way  in  until  they  fester.  Imagine 
men  and  women  walking  bare-footed  over  a  pathway 
made  of  these  vicious  plants,  or  rolling  their  naked  bodies 
over  and  over  on  them,  or  taking  a  mass  of  them,  tied 
together,  and  carrying  them  upon  their  backs.  These 
"  disciplines  "  are  not  uncommon  both  during  the  Lenten 
Season,  on  All  Saints'  Day,  and  also  at  funerals  and 
special  occasions  of  penance. 

But,  naturally,  it  is  in  Lent  that  the  penitentes'  devo- 
tion is  blown  to  a  fierce  blaze.  For  weeks  before  the 
brothers  meet  in  the  little  morada,  spending  hours  of 
the  night  in  prayer,  and  in  listening  to  the  instructions 
of  the  Hermano  Mayor  and  the  Maestro  de  Novios. 
Processions  at  night-time  are  formed.  One  shudders 
with  horror  as  he  recalls  his  first  sight  of  this  thrilling 
ceremony,  and  had  it  not  been  repeated  he  could  well 
believe  it  to  be  the  product  of  the  delirium  of  disease  or 
the  fantastic  figment  of  a  dream.  But  it  was  too  real 
to  be  imaginary.  It  was  a  cold  night  in  late  March  and 
I  had  ridden  out  three  miles  with  a  friend.  We  had  tied 
our  horses  to  trees,  and  then  taken  places  on  the  slope 
of  the  lonesome  canyon  in  which  the  morada  was  built. 
Feeble  lances  of  light  shooting  through  the  chinks  of 
the  building  showed  that  it  was  occupied,  and  now  and 
again  voices  could  be  heard.     After  a  long  wait,  during 


282    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

which  we  sat  shivering  with  cold,  the  door  opened,  and 
there  stalked  forth,  in  solemn  silence,  the  pitcro.  As  the 
others  followed  he  began  that  piteous  wail  upon  his  reed 
pipe  that  is  penetrating  in  the  extreme.  The  only  light 
was  that  of  the  stars  and  the  dim  radiance  shed  by  two 
or  three  lanterns  carried  by  the  assistants,  one  of  whom 
immediately  followed  the  pitcro.  Behind  came  five  men, 
the  faint  light  revealing  bare  feet,  legs  encased  in  the 
thinnest  kind  of  white  calico  trousers,  the  body  entirely 
naked  and  the  head  enswathed  in  a  black  cloth.  All  of 
them  carried  in  their  hands  rude  whips,  made  of  the 
fibers  of  the  prickly  pear  or  Spanish  bayonet.  All  of  the 
five  were  bowed  over,  as  if  in  timid  shrinking,  and  their 
very  movements  showed  a  fear  of  the  ordeal  through 
which  they  were  to  pass.  Tears  came  into  my  eyes  — 
as  they  do  now  at  the  remembrance, —  as  I  felt  the  deep 
pathos  of  the  scene. 

Another  brother,  dressed  in  ordinary  costume,  guided 
the  whipping  brothers  by  a  touch.  In  the  rear  followed 
the  Chief  Brother.  Following  the  lead  of  the  pipe,  the 
brothers  began  to  sing,  and  the  procession  moved.  It 
was  a  doleful  song,  nasal  and  thin  in  quality,  yet  it  made 
a  pro  founder  impression  upon  me  than  the  scientific  sing- 
ing of  Caruso,  Melba  or  Schumann-Heink.  For  it  had 
a  rarer  accompaniment  than  song  ever  before  heard. 
Moving  forward  a  step,  the  five  whippers  paused,  and 
then,  a  swish  was  heard,  as  one  of  them  swung  his  heavy 
whip  over  his  shoulders  and  it  fell  with  a  heavy  thud 
upon  his  bare  back.  Another  struck,  then  others  in  irreg- 
ular order.  Two  more  steps  forward  were  taken,  another 
pause.  Then,  more  swishes  and  dull  thuds  that  seemed  to 
the  sensitive  onlooker  to  reach  even  to  his  own  marrow. 
Two  more  steps,  followed  by  the  slight  pause  to  enable 
the  swing  of  the  whip.     Now,  even  in  the  dim  light,  we 


.«oi\)m\  v»sA  wotUs'H 


The  Self-Whipping  of  the  New  Mexico  Penitentes 

From    a    Painting    made    expressly   for    the    author    by 
William  Lees  Judson. 


The  American  Passion  Play 283 

could  see  stains  on  the  white  fiber  of  the  scourges,  and 
on  the  tops  of  the  trousers  of  the  whippers.  Fascinated 
by  the  tremendousness  of  the  occurrence  —  for  it  seemed 
unbelievable  —  I  was  drawn  to  the  processionaires  in 
spite  of  myself,  or  perhaps  it  were  better  to  say,  in  utter 
unconsciousness  of  self.  Regardless  of  the  threats  of 
men  who  carried  guns  in  their  hands  and  bade  my  friend 
and  me  retire,  I  approached  near  enough  to  receive  a 
spatter  of  blood  on  my  face  at  the  next  swinging  of  the 
whip.  And  later,  when  I  went  over  the  path  of  the 
whippers  by  daylight,  I  picked  up  a  dozen  or  more  large 
chips  of  newly  cut  wood  on  which  are  blots  of  blood 
clearly  yet  to  be  seen.  Let  it  not  be  forgotten  that  all 
this  while  the  singing  continued,  and  over  all  the  thin 
wail  of  the  pipe  ascended,  suggesting  the  faint  but  pierc- 
ing cry  of  the  soul's  own  agony.  Here  is  a  crude  trans- 
lation of  the  hymn  that  was  sung.  Both  Spanish  and  the 
translation  are  very  lame : 

All  upon  our  knees, 
Ought  I  to  implore 
This  blood  of  mine 
That  I  am  going  to  shed. 

I  am  the  sinner, 
Who  has  already  sworn, 
To  praise  the  blood 
Of  this  discipline. 

To  praise  You  I  come, 
Jesus  and  Mary, 
To  implore  the  blood 
Of  this  discipline. 

On,  on,  the'gruesome  procession  moved,  my  fascinated 

eyes  and  fee't  following,  up  to  the  slight  mound  or  hill, 

/  upon  which  a  cross  was  placed.     Around  this  mound  the 

procession  moved  three  times,  and  then  advancing  to  the 


284    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

foot  of  the  Cross,  the  five  flagellants  prostrated  them- 
selves, while  the  rest  sang  a  hymn,  of  which  the  follow- 
ing are  two  verses : 

There  is  no  one  now 

Who  is  not  worth  something, 

Christ  is  already  dead. 

Christ  is  already  dead 
And  life  is  now  ended, 
Now  give  Him  your  soul 
For  which  He  is  calling. 

Now,  the  prostrate  ones  arose  —  and,  did  my  ears  play 
me  false,  or  did  I  really  hear  groans  ?  —  the  procession 
re-formed  and  returned  to  the  morada.  But  as  it  did  so 
one  of  the  flagellants  began  to  cringe  and  sidestep  his 
own  blows.  As  he  threw  his  whip,  now  heavy  with 
blood,  over  his  shoulder,  he  involuntarily  dodged,  so  that 
the  blow  fell  slightly  on  his  side  as  the  whip  slipped  over 
his  arm.  Seeing  this,  one  of  the  companeros  produced 
a  heavy  blacksnake  whip  with  which  he  vigorously  ap- 
plied two  blows  upon  the  body  of  the  recalcitrant  brother. 
A  loud  shriek,  immediately  stifled,  followed  this  stern 
reminder. 

The  hymn  sung  on  the  return  to  the  morada  seemed 
endless.     Here  are  some  of  the  verses : 

All  together  come 
In  on  your  knees, 
To  praise  the  blood 
Of  this  discipline. 

On  their  way  they  are, 
Jesus  and  Mary, 
To  praise  the  blood 
Of  this  discipline. 

Oh !  my  dear  Jesus, 
Father  of  my  soul, 
You  Who  deliver  man 
From  the  cruel  enemy. 


The  American  Passion  Play 285 

All  upon  our  knees 
We  must  implore 
This  blood  of  mine 
That  I  am  going  to  shed. 

I  am  a  sinner, 
Who  has  already  sworn 
To  praise  the  blood 
Of  this  discipline. 

To  praise  thee  I  come, 
Jesus  and  Mary, 
To  implore  the  blood 
Of  this  discipline. 

My  tired  Jesus 
Always  saw  Himself 
Greatly  afflicted 
With  this  discipline. 

In  my  loneliness 

There  would  accompany  me 

The  whole  universe 

In  this  discipline. 

With  this  destination 
My  Jesus  came, 
His  body  covered 
With  this  discipline. 

Again  within  the  seclusion  of  the  morada  one  might 
think  the  cruel  rites  over,  and  the  poor  wounded  bodies 
being  bathed  and  treated  with  healing  oils.  But,  for  a 
long  time,  at  least,  it  is  not  so.  Prostrate  before  the  rude 
altar,  moaning,  groaning,  praying,  crying,  the  penitentes 
lie,  while  others  pipe,  sing  and  pray.  Then,  retiring  to 
the  inner  room  of  the  morada  the  coadjutor  washes  their 
wounds. 

On  another  occasion  I  witnessed,  prior  to  the  open 
procession,  a  reception  of  novices.  This  was  on  Holy 
Tuesday.     There  must  have  been   fully   twenty-five  of 


286    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

them.  Secure,  by  the  invitation  of  the  Hermano  Mayor, 
and  standing  near  him,  within  the  morada,  soon  after 
night-fall,  I  was  a  fascinated  spectator  and  listener.  A 
knock  was  heard  and  the  voice  of  a  novice  chanted  (in 
Spanish)  : 

God's  child  knocks  at  this  Mission's  door  for  His  grace. 

Hermano  Mayor  (from  within)  :  Penance,  penance  is  required  by 
those  who  seek  salvation. 

The  Notice:  St.  Peter  will  open  the  gate,  bathing  me  with  the 
light  in  the  name  of  Mary,  with  the  seal  of  Jesus.  I  ask  this  broth- 
erhood:  Who  gives  this  house  light? 

Hermano  Mayor:     Jesus. 

The  Novice:     Who  fills  it  with  joy? 

Hermano  Mayor:     Mary. 

The  Novice:     Who  preserves  it  with  faith? 

Hermano  Mayor:     Joseph. 

The  warden  now  opened  the  door  and  the  novice  en- 
tered. He  was  received  by  the  Maestro  de  Novios  and 
the  sangrador,  who  took  him  into  the  inner  room. 

In  the  meantime  another  candidate  had  begun  the  same 
chanting  catechism,  and  in  due  time  was  allowed  to  enter. 
This  time  one  of  the  coadjutors  received  him,  and  when 
several  were  thus  admitted,  I  asked  the  Hermano  Mayor 
to  take  me  into  the  inner  room.  Calling  another  to  his 
place,  and  bidding  me  keep  well  in  the  background,  he 
took  me  into  the  "  Holy  of  Holies  "  of  the  morada. 
There  I  heard  the  Master  of  Novices  instruct  the  novice 
in  his  duties  :  obedience,  loyalty  to  the  brotherhood  and  its 
officers,  faithfulness  in  attendance  upon  its  rites,  the  ab- 
solute need  of  whipping-discipline  for  salvation,  and 
above  all  secrecy.  Nothing  that  transpired  within  the 
walls  of  the  morada  must  be  revealed  under  any  circum- 
stances.    Then,  turning  this  novice  over  to  the  sangrador, 


The  American  Passion  Play 


•_'»/ 


another  novice  received  his  instruction,  and  yet  another. 

I  now  sidled  over  to  the  sangrador  and  watched  him. 
It  was  well  I  was  prepared  beforehand  or  I  should  have 
fainted.  Stripped  to  the  waist,  the  novice  bent  over, 
resting  his  hands  on  a  rude  bench.  An  assistant  held  a 
lighted  candle  over  his  back,  on  one  side.  Standing  at 
his  buttocks,  the  sangrador,  with  a  jagged  piece  of  broken 
bottle,  made  a  deep  incision  clear  down  the  back  of  the 
novice  on  the  left  side,  then  another  in  the  middle  and 
still  another  on  the  right  side.  Wiping  off  the  blood,  he 
stepped  to  the  side  of  the  novice  and  made  three  parallel 
slashes  across  the  back.  This  is  the  official  seal  of  the 
brotherhood. 

Some  sangrador s  do  their  work  with  a  savage  efficiency 
that  leaves  deep  scars  for  life;  while  others  are  more  piti- 
ful. It  is  a  gruesome  sight  to  witness  these  men,  one 
after  another,  submit  to  this  painful  ordeal,  and  one  mar- 
vels at  their  self-control  when  he  sees  the  sangrador  take 
a  handful  of  salt  and  carelessly  rub  it  over  and  into  the 
wounds.  The  victim  may,  generally  does,  weep  heavy 
tears,  but  save  now  and  then  utters  no  groan  or  note  of 
protest.  Only  once  have  I  seen  the  salt  used.  On  two 
other  occasions  the  coadjutor  bathed  the  lacerated  backs 
with  tea  made  of  a  plant  known  as  the  "  Romero  weed." 
The  proceedings  are  conducted  with  a  solemnity  that  is 
profound.  No  one  can  fail  to  be  impressed  with  the 
deadly  earnestness  of  these  men. 

But  I  have  overlooked  a  further  important  part  of  the 
initiation.  Before  the  wounds  are  bathed,  the  novice 
asks: 

For  the  love  of  God  bestow  upon  me  a  reminder   of  the  three 
meditations  of  the  passion  of  Our  Lord. 

In  response  the  sangrador  gives  him  three  sharp  lashes 


288    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

with  a  rawhide  whip  on  one  side  the  length  of  the  spine, 
and  three  on  the  other.     The  novice  now  cries : 

For  the  love  of  God  bestow  on  me  the  reminder  of  the  five  wounds 
of  Christ. 

Five  lashes  are  given,  and  then  in  turn,  "  For  the  love 
of  God  "  prefacing  each  request,  the  sangrador  is  asked 
to  bestow  the  "  seven  last  words/'  and  the  "  forty  days 
in  the  wilderness,''  all  of  which  are  given.  With  a  final 
warning  to  secrecy  the  novice  is  now  allowed  to  go  home. 
Generally  there  i*s  a  procession  of  whippers  to  the  Calvario 
following  the  reception  of  new  brothers. 

Ash  Wednesday  is  spent  in  confessing  their  sins,  whip- 
ping themselves  in  the  seclusion  of  the  morada,  whipping 
and  praying,  or  visits  to  other  moradas,  the  penitentes 
fasting  the  whole  day.  A  procession  is  generally  formed 
during  the  day,  in  which  the  one  chosen  to  be  Christ  is 
made  known.  He  is  named  by  the  Hermano  Mayor  as 
the  result  of  a  choice  by  lot  —  the  drawing  of  straws  — 
or  he  is  named  by  a  vision.  For  be  it  known,  some  of  the 
Hcrmanos  May  ores  openly  claim  to  be  the  vessels  of 
heavenly  communication  by  means  of  visions.  The 
"  Christ  "  on  this  occasion  drags  a  rude,  heavy  cross  to 
the  Calvario,  accompanied  by  several  others,  either  bear- 
ing crosses,  or  with  cactus  bound  upon  their  naked  bodies. 
The  crosses  are  heavy,  rudely  constructed  affairs,  being 
nothing  but  heavy  poles  of  unbarked  pine,  or  similar 
wood,  for  the  standard,  with  slightly  smaller  pieces  for 
the  cross-bars.  Several  times  have  I  tried  to  carry  one 
of  these  crosses,  but  failed.  It  is  as  much  as  I  can  do  to 
merely  stand  and  hold  it  on  my  shoulder,  but  these  men 
drag  them  up  the  hill  to  the  Calvario,  and  back  again. 
True  it  is  they  often  faint  on  the  way,  stagger  and  fall, 
and  were  it  not  for  the  activity  of  the  coadjutors  and 


Photograph    by    Bert   Phillips. 

THE    AUTHOR    ATTEMPTING    TO    CARRY    A    TYPICAL 
PENITENTE   CROSS. 


The  American  Passion  Play 289 

other  helpers,  they  might  sometimes  be  severely  injured 
with  the  weight  of  the  crosses  falling  upon  them. 

In  the  meantime  there  are  women  devotees,  who  are 
just  as  earnest  in  their  self-inflicted  punishments  as  are 
the  men.  I  have  not  yet  learned  whether  there  is  any 
definite  relationship  to  the  fraternity  allowed  to  women, 
or  whether  their  activities  are  purely  voluntary.  But  I 
have  seen  women  with  bare  feet  and  legs  standing  in 
beds  of  cactus,  and  on  one  occasion  I  was  asked  to  go 
and  see  a  sick  woman  who  had  been  found,  the  day  be- 
fore, insensible.  On  taking  off  her  clothes  it  was  dis- 
covered that  she  had  wrapped  a  rawhide  riata  around 
her  arms  and  legs  so  tight  that  blood  circulation  had  been 
seriously  impeded  and  infection  had  set  in.  When  her 
friend  began  to  remove  the  ropes  the  sufferer  begged  her 
to  allow  them  to  remain.  It  is  stated  that  one  woman 
so  persisted  that  the  wounds  in  one  of  her  legs  became  so 
serious  that  the  limb  was  amputated  to  save  her  life. 
Women  sometimes  accompany  the  processions,  and  it  is 
said  they  used  to  whip  themselves  in  public. 

As  Friday,  the  day  of  the  Crucifixion  of  Christ,  draws 
near,  the  frenzy  or  zeal  —  whichever  one  prefers  to  call 
it  —  approaches  its  zenith.  One  writer  well  versed  in 
penitente  practice,  having  witnessed  the  ceremonies  again 
and  again  through  his  boyhood,  thus  describes  them  on 
Thursday  night : 

"  About  midnight  of  Holy  Thursday  the  quiet  of  the 
sleeping  mountain  village  is  oppressive,  broken  only  by 
the  quiet  sigh  of  the  cold  wind  through  the  cedars,  or  the 
occasional  '  ki-yi '  of  a  coyote.  Suddenly  the  silence  is 
torn  by  a  shrill,  unearthly  wail,  coming  apparently  from 
the  air  itself.  It  is  the  pito  heralding  the  Day  of  the 
Cross.  Mingled  with  it  comes  the  sound  of  voices ;  al- 
most inhuman  are  they,  keyed  at  the  same  high  pitch  and 


"^ 


290     New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

with  the  same  tortured  wail  as  the  flute.  The  crack  of 
the  lashes  can  be  heard.  On  they  come  through  the  dark- 
ness. A  lantern  flickers  between  the  pinions  and  the 
weary  procession  is  silhouetted  against  the  sky  line. 
Some  stagger  under  the  weight  of  the  tremendous  crosses, 
the  heavy  logs  dragging  and  crunching  over  the  stones 
behind ;  the  wet  slap  and  swish  of  the  disciplines  keeps 
time  with  the  never  ceasing  pito. 

"  Staggering  and  reeling  they  pass,  bleeding  and  quiver- 
ing under  the  torture  that  seems  beyond  human  endur- 
ance, going  to  few  know  where.  Never  have  I  met  a 
person  who  has  followed  them  to  their  destination  on 
Thursday  night.  We  surmise,  however,  that  it  is  to  a 
cross,  somewhere  on  a  lonely  mountain. 

"  At  last  they  return,  their  steps  more  unsteady.  Some 
reel  and  fall,  only  to  be  scourged  the  harder,  some  scream 
in  an  ecstasy  of  fanatic  feeling,  but  never  does  one  waver 
under  the  punishment.  It  may  be  that  they  are  all  able 
to  return  unassisted,  but  usually,  more  than  once,  the  poor 
Cristo's  load  weighs  him  down;  more  than  once,  the 
companeros  must  hold  the  cross  or  catch  it  to  keep  him 
from  falling  under  it  and  having  his  brains  crushed  out." 

Good  Friday,  however,  is  the  great  day.  To  the  peni- 
tente  this  is  the  one  day  of  the  year,  and  to  the  Cristo 
it  may  be  the  one  day  of  his  life,  for  many  a  man  nailed 
or  tied  to  the  cross  on  this  day  has  never  again  been  seen 
on  earth  by  relatives  or  friends.  When  such  disappear- 
ances occur,  the  victim's  boots  are  returned  to  his  quietly 
disconsolate  family  and  they  are  informed  that  he  has 
"  gone  on  a  journey." 

As  the  first  signs  of  morning  begin  to  appear  over  the 
mountains  the  investigating  visitor  finds  others  —  friends, 
sympathizers  or  the  merely  curious  —  wending  their  way 
to  the  morada.     It  is  generally  shiveringly  cold.     All  my 


The  American  Passion  Play 291 

memories  of  the  Lenten  doings  of  the  penitentes  seem 
wrapped  in  shivers,  whether  of  cold  or  nervous  sympa- 
thy, or  both,  I  can  scarcely  tell.  Since  the  hostility  and 
interference  of  officious  protestants  one  now  finds,  on  ap- 
proaching the  morada,  a  number  of  men  armed  with 
loaded  rifles  and  shotguns,  acting  as  sentinels  who  guard 
against  any  interference,  and  also  scare  the  wits  out  of 
any  simple-minded  camera  fiend,  who  fondly  imagined 
he  might  be  allowed  to  make  photographs. 

Suddenly  the  thin  wails  of  the  pipe,  accompanied  with 
the  rousing  din  of  the  matraca,  burst  upon  the  ear.  This 
was  the  signal  to  the  brothers,  sleeping  the  sleep  of  ex- 
haustion after  pain,  to  awaken  and  engage  in  the  solemn 
rites  of  the  day.  Soon  thereafter  the  door  opened  and 
the  procession  formed  as  before  related.  But  this  time 
the  backs  of  the  penitentes  were  fearfully  lacerated  and 
it  seemed  impossible  that  they  could  inflict  further  pun- 
ishment upon  themselves.  The  sangrador,  however,  a 
stern  faced  Mexican  —  who  would  have  made  an  admir- 
able and  officious  assistant  of  the  Holy  Inquisition  of 
torture  days  —  evidently  did  not  think  so,  for  he  dipped 
the  disciplinas  —  the  scourges  —  in  water  that  they  might 
cut  the  more  severely.  The  ground  was  frozen ;  here 
and  there  ice  glistened,  and  the  wind  blew  with  chilly 
blasts  down  the  narrow  canyon.  We  were  shivering; 
how  must  it  have  been  with  the  naked  backs  of  those  poor 
sufferers!  Yet  stolidly  they  marched,  and  we  heard  the 
swish  of  the  whip,  its  "  thwack  "  as  it  struck  the  quiver- 
ing flesh,  and  we  could  clearly  see  the  blood  spattering 
as  each  blow  fell.  This  procession  was  to  the  Campo  del 
Santo, —  the  graveyard, —  as  the  morada  is  in  the  village, 
but  in  some  cases  it  goes  to  the  appointed  Calvario.  In 
either  instance  the  procession  halts  as  usual  before  the 
cross  which  is  found  in  place  there. 


292    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

After  their  return,  the  lacerated  backs  are  bathed  in 
Romero  weed  infusion;  the  penitentes  all  partake  of  a 
rude  breakfast,  brought  to  them  by  relatives  or  friends, 
and  then,  with  the  visitors,  all  become  reverent  attendants 
at  an  altar  service,  conducted  by  the  Hermano  Mayor. 
After  singing,  in  which  all  present  join,  prayers  are  of- 
fered, and  all  devotees  advance  and  kiss  a  crucifix  held 
in  the  leader's  hand,  at  the  same  time  making  a  small 
monetary  donation.  Then,  in  a  silence  that  is  painful, 
one  sits  wondering  what  comes  next.  Later,  on  my 
questioning  him,  the  Hermano  Mayor  explained  this  si- 
lence as  being  necessary  in  order  that  he  might  receive 
the  instructions  of  the  Holy  Spirit  as  to  the  future  con- 
duct of  the  brotherhood.  One  private  member,  however, 
rather  cynically  informed  me  that  it  was  to  give  the  devil 
a  chance  to  suggest  how  he  might  more  cruelly  torture 
the  brothers  at  the  next  period  of  discipline. 

Before  noon  another  short  march,  with  lighter  whip- 
pings, takes  place,  and  then  there  is  a  period  of  rest  and 
meditation  prior  to  the  final  and  important  procession  of 
the  afternoon.  At  this  all  the  penitentes  appear.  There 
are  sometimes  as  many  as  six  or  eight  bearing  crosses, 
the  Cristo,  of  course,  having  by  far  the  heaviest  one,  and 
occasionally  wearing  a  crown  of  thorns.  All  the  whip- 
pers  are  in  line,  and  it  is  not  uncommon  to  see  the  women 
devotees  or  sympathizers  straggling  along,  near  by,  as 
near  to  the  procession  as  they  are  allowed  to  come.  On 
this  occasion,  also,  where  the  brotherhood  is  numerous, 
the  Carreta  del  Muerto  —  the  cart  of  death  —  is  used. 
This  is  a  home-made  cart,  with  solid  wooden  wheels, 
shaped  out  of  the  trunk  of  a  tree,  and  with  heavy  wooden 
axles.  Laden  down  with  stones,  upon  which  is  placed  a 
bed  of  cactus,  it  makes  a  fitting  seat  for  a  skeleton,  rep- 
resenting Death,  which  holds  in  its  bony  fingers  a  bow, 


The  American  Passion  Play 293 

with  the  arrow  set  in  the  string  as  if  ready  to  shoot. 
This  is  in  accord  with  penitente  theology,  which  is  of  a 
sterner  type  than  that  of  the  old  Greeks,  who  placed  a 
skeleton  at  their  feasts  to  remind  them  that  death  was 
near,  and  that,  therefore,  they  must  feast  with  the  more 
complete  abandon.  This  carreta  is  drawn  by  six  or  eight 
men,  each  with  heavy  chains  fastened  around  his  ankles. 
Ropes  for  traction  go  from  the  cart  and  are  fastened 
around  their  necks,  to  suggest  the  strangle-hold  Death 
has  upon  all  men.  This  carreta  del  muerto  is  seldom  seen 
now-a-days  except  by  members  themselves.  It  is  gen- 
erally kept  in  seclusion  in  the  inner  sanctum  of  the 
morada.  On  one  occasion  it  is  said  the  arrow  was  acci- 
dentally loosened  from  the  taut  bow  and  killed  a  by- 
stander. 

The  pitero  heads  the  procession,  followed  by  the  Cristo, 
carrying  the  heaviest  cross,  and  other  cross-bearers. 
Then  come  the  whipping  brothers.  The  men's  singing  is 
reinforced  by  the  higher  notes  of  the  women,  as  the  grue- 
some party  moves  forward.  Every  few  steps  one  of  the 
cross-bearers  staggers  and  would  fall  were  he  not  aided. 

Of  late  years  there  has  been  no  open  daylight  cruci- 
fixion, except  in  a  few  cases  where  it  is  known  that 
wooden  images  were  used.  This  has  led  to  the  assertion, 
now  often  made,  that  crucifixions  have  ceased.  This  is 
not  true.  They  still  take  place,  but  with  the  utmost 
secrecy  and  in  the  night-time  in  some  far-away  spot  on 
the  mountain  side  where  curious  and  prying  eyes  are  not 
apt  to  be. 

Owing  to  there  now  being  no  public  crucifixion  —  un- 
less the  wooden  representation  of  Christ  be  used  in  one  — 
a  change  has  taken  place  in  the  ceremonies.  A  circle  is 
composed  of  fourteen  crosses,  and  the  penitentes  go 
around  this  circle,  stopping  at  each  cross  while  certain 


294    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

prayers  are  recited.  Each  cross  represents  one  of  the 
fourteen  stations. 

As  they  return  to  the  morada  the  frenzy  of  the  zealots 
seems  to  increase.  The  singing  of  men  and  women  de- 
notes greater  ardour ;  the  prayers  become  more  fervent ; 
the  blows  fall  faster  and  heavier  upon  the  lacerated  backs 
of  the  self-whippers ;  and  the  blood  flows  more  freely. 
The  cross-bearers  are  generally  wholly  exhausted  and 
have  to  be  aided  on  each  side,  and  it  is  no  uncommon 
thing  for  one  or  more  of  the  whipping  brothers  to  reel 
and  fall  fainting  to  the  ground,  owing  to  the  agony  they 
endure. 

It  is  with  a  keen  sense  of  relief  that  the  compassionate 
onlooker  sees  the  door  of  the  morada  open  and  the  piteous 
ceremonies  brought  to  a  close. 

The  well-informed  authority  before  quoted  says  of  the 
crucifixions  that  he  knows  still  take  place : 

"  The  time  of  the  crucifixion  is  an  uncertain  thing 
these  years,  but  the  method  is  still  the  same.  The  cross 
that  has  been  dragged  many  miles  by  the  doomed  man  is 
laid  with  its  foot  near  a  small  hole.  The  Christ  stands 
fearless  and  resolute  near  it.  The  men  and  sometimes  the 
mother  of  the  victim  gather  near.  The  Hermano  to  be 
crucified  is  laid  on  the  cross,  his  arms  are  bound  to  the 
shoulders,  his  legs  to  the  thighs  with  ropes ;  the  compana- 
dorcs,  bracing  themselves,  pull  the  ropes  so  tight  that  the 
circulation  is  stopped.  The  cross  is  quickly  raised,  bear- 
ing its  human  load.  The  sermon  of  the  seven  last  words 
is  read.  Then  all  is  silent,  except  for  the  sobs  of  the 
mother,  perhaps  of  another  Mary,  and  some  sympathizer. 
Slowly  and  surely  the  limbs  darken,  slowly  discoloration 
passes  up  the  trunk.  Just  before  it  reaches  the  heart, 
the  Hermano  Mayor  signals  and  the  Christ  —  uncon- 
scious, perhaps  frozen  so  stiff  that  when  taken  into  the 


The  American  Passion  Play  295 

nwrada  he  must  be  turned  sideways  so  his  arms  may  not 
block  the  passage  —  is  taken  down.  It  may  be  that  he 
regains  consciousness,  it  may  be  that  he  does  not.  In  the 
event  of  the  unfortunate  Cristo  dying  he  is  buried  se- 
cretly before  morning  in  some  lonely  place. 

"  A  year  later  a  small  cross  is  placed  over  his  grave. 
The  reward  that  comes  to  him  and  his  family  is  heaven. 
Of  this  they  are  all  fully  assured. 

"  The  culminating  tragedy  over,  quiet  reigns  supreme. 
Except  for  the  usual  noises  of  birds  and  beasts,  the  occa- 
sional tinkle  of  a  goat-  or  cow-bell,  all  is  still.  Just  after 
dark,  however,  the  quietude  is  pierced  by  the  startling 
notes  of  the  pito  and  matraca.  All  are  summoned  by 
these  imperative  and  insistent  noises.  The  Mexican  pop- 
ulace,—  men,  women  and  children, —  all  come  in  a  body, 
all  the  Brothers  of  Light  are  there,  and  even  those  who 
carried  the  crosses,  and  the  poor  victims  of  their  own 
whippings  arrive.  Again  the  solemn  procession  marches,  "; 
but  this  time  it  is  to  the  church.  The  service  to  be  held  L 
is  known  as  tinicblas.  This  is  the  name  originally  given 
to  the  matins  or  morning  service  of  the  Catholic  Church 
held  on  the  three  last  days  of  Holy  Week.  But  among 
the  Mexicans  it  seems  to  have  changed  its  significance. 
It  is  applied  to  the  evening  service  on  Good  Friday,  which 
is  conducted  in  entire  darkness.  This  is  in  accord  with 
the  scriptural  account  of  the  occurrences  after  the  cruci- 
fixion of  Our  Lord.  St.  Luke  tells  that  '  there  was  dark- 
ness over  all  the  earth  '  from  the  sixth  to  the  ninth  hour, 
'  and  the  sun  was  darkened,  and  the  veil  of  the  temple 
was  rent  in  the  midst.'  St.  Mlatthew  adds  that  '  the 
earth  did  quake,  and  the  rocks  rent,  and  the  graves  were 
opened :  and  many  bodies  of  the  saints  arose.'  " 

In  one  service  which  I  witnessed,  just  prior  to  the 
Tinicblas  the  church  was  lit  with  twenty-four  candles, 


) 


296    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

twelve  on  each  side,  placed  in  a  triangular  box.  The 
hymn  "  La  Passion  "  was  sung,  followed  by  the  recital 
by  the  priest  of  twelve  psalms,  each  psalm  said  to  repre- 
sent one  of  the  twelve  apostles.  At  the  close  of  each 
psalm  an  acolyte  extinguished  a  candle  in  each  box,  thus 
symbolizing  the  desertion  of  the  apostle  from  Our  Lord. 

By  this  time  the  little  church  was  filled,  the  general 
audience  occupying  the  main  floor,  while  the  penitentes 
had  taken  possession  of  the  choir  gallery.  Now  began 
the  tinieblas.  To  the  scariness  of  perfect  darkness  was 
added  a  perfect  clamour  of  horrible  sounds  —  the  rattling 
and  clanking  of  chains,  beating  of  a  drum,  shaking  of 
sheets  of  tin  or  zinc,  beating  together  of  coal-oil  cans,  etc., 
while  men  and  women  shrieked  and  groaned,  shouted  and 
yelled  with  a  wailing,  suffering  quality  that  made  one  feel 
he  was  indeed  in  hell.  Lummis  says  this  part  of  the 
ceremony  is  intended  to  represent  the  arrival  of  the  soul 
in  purgatory,  but  every  one  of  the  brothers  and  Hcrmano 
Mayors  with  whom  I  have  spoken,  and  all  the  Mexican 
attendants  on  the  services  have  translated  the  word 
tinieblas  for  me  as  "  earthquake,"  clearly  indicating  that 
they  regard  this  as  the  culmination  of  the  actual  occur- 
rences on  Calvary.  For  fully  five  minutes  this  unearthly 
noise  continued.  Then  there  was  a  sudden  hush.  Out 
of  it  a  voice  was  heard  calling  for  a  sudario.  This  is  a 
handkerchief  or  cloth  put  over  the  face  of  the  dead.  Im- 
mediately some  one  began  a  prayer.  At  its  conclusion  the 
racket  was  resumed  in  all  its  ear-splitting  hideousness, 
continued  for  about  five  minutes,  and  was  again  hushed. 
Another  sudario  was  called  for.  And  thus,  alternating 
noise,  the  silence,  the  sudario,  lasted  for  an  hour  or 
more. 

As  near  as  I  can  gather  the  call  for  the  sudario  for  a 
certain  person  supposed  to  be   in  purgatory   materially 


The  American  Passion  Play  297 

aids,  if  not  altogether  succeeds,  in  advancing  it  on  its 
journey  to  heaven.  For  the  whole  philosophy  of  the 
penitential  faith  is  that  the  sufferings  willingly  endured 
here  produce  a  corresponding  joy  and  freedom  from  pain 
and  distress  in  the  after  life.  The  symbolism,  thus,  is 
apparent.  As  Christ  rose  from  the  dead  and  ascended 
into  heaven,  the  penitentes  believe  that  they  can  vicari- 
ously assist  their  deceased  friends  to  ascend  into  heaven 
from  purgatory. 

The  final  sudario  responded  to,  the  noise  hushed,  the 
audience  disperses,  the  mass  of  the  people  go  to  their 
homes,  the  penitentes  to  the  morada,  where  they  transact 
the  business  of  the  year,  electing  officers,  etc.  This  often 
keeps  them  all  night  —  as  in  more  supposedly  refined 
communities  —  and  when  all  is  done  to  their  satisfaction 
they  retire  to  their  homes,  each  one  assured  that  his  soul 
is  safe,  until  warned  by  the  Hermano  Mayor  that  his  sins 
demand  another  penance,  or  until  the  arrival  of  the  next 
yearly  carnival  of  penitential  agony. 

Silenced  by  their  vows  of  secrecy  and  yet  allowing  so 
much  of  their  ceremonial  to  be  seen  by  the  public,  there 
is  little  wonder  that  a  thousand  and  one  wild  stories  are 
circulated  in  New  Mexico  about  the  penitent  brothers. 
One  might  naturally  expect  that  those  who  so  strenuously 
professed  a  desire  to  partake  of  the  sufferings  of  Christ 
would  also  show  forth  some  of  the  Christlike  life.  Lum- 
mis,  however,  says,  and  many  good  people  in  the  State 
confirm  his  assertion,  that  this  is  a  "  serious  error :  " 

There  are  among  them  good  but  deluded  men ;  but  many  of  them 
are  of  the  lowest  and  most  dangerous  class  —  petty  larcenists,  horse- 
thieves,  and  assassins,  who  by  their  devotions  during  Lent  think  to 
expiate  the  sins  of  the  whole  year.  The  brotherhood,  though  broken, 
still  holds  the  balance  of  political  power.  No  one  likes  —  and  few 
dare  —  to  offend  them;  and  there  have  been  men  of  liberal  education 
who  have  joined  them  to  gain  political  influence.     In  fact  it  is  un- 


298    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

questionable  that  the  outlawed  order  is  kept  alive  in  its  few  remote 
strongholds  by  the  connivance  of  wealthy  men,  who  find  it  con- 
venient to  maintain  these  secret  bands  for  their  own  ends. 

It  is  well  known  that  some  of  these  men  are  criminals, 
for  there  are  several  now  in  the  state  penitentiary  at 
Santa  Fe.  As  soon  as  they  undress  for  bathing  the 
guards  recognize  the  "  seal  " —  the  scars  of  the  cuts  upon 
the  back  —  and  know  them  as  penitentes. 

At  present,  there  is  a  serious  split  in  the  brotherhood. 
There  are  two  factions,  one  having,  I  am  told,  over  seven- 
teen hundred  members,  and  the  other  over  a  thousand,  in 
the  counties  closely  adjoining  Taos  County  —  the  head- 
quarters being  in  the  city  of  Taos.  The  chief  Hermano 
Mayor  of  the  larger  faction  is  a  saloon-keeper. 

That  the  brotherhood  is  under  the  ban  of  the  Church 
does  not  seem  to  affect  them  at  all.  Many  times  in  talk- 
ing with  members,  I  have  said :  "  But  you  are  not  good 
Catholics.  The  Archbishop  has  said  you  cannot  receive 
the  sacraments  of  the  Church  if  you  remain  penitentes," 
and  the  immediate  response  has  been :  "  What  matters 
it,  Seiior,  I  am  a  penitente!  "  That  seems  to  settle  the 
whole  question  with  them.  Yet,  while  under  the  official 
ban  of  the  Church,  the  priests  do  not  seem  able  clearly 
to  separate  the  sheep  from  the  goats.  The  penitentes 
often  march  from  their  moradas  direct  to  the  churches, 
and  join  the  regular  congregations  in  the  services,  as  in 
the  case  of  the  Tinieblas,  and  I  have  photographs  of  one 
penitente  celebration  in  which  the  regular  parish  priest 
blessed  certain  of  the  participants,  etc. 

And  as  for  the  law !  —  the  penitentes  used  to  regard 
themselves  as  outside  and  beyond  the  law.  If  a  penitente 
was  known  ope'nly  to  have  injured  an  outsider  practically 
no  attention  was  paid  to  the  matter  by  the  Hermano 
Mayor.     He  might  run  off  with  his  neighbour's  sheep, 


The  American  Passion  Play 299 

cow,  burro,  or  even  his  wife,  with  impunity.  But  let  him 
injure  a  brother  penitente  in  any  way,  the  Hermano 
Mayor  not  only  could  sentence  the  culprit  to  most  con- 
dign punishment  but  his  commands  were  held  in  such 
reverence  that  he  had  power  to  enforce  them.  Many  a 
recalcitrant  brother  has  felt  the  lash  of  the  wire  disci  plina; 
and  I  have  talked  with  one  man  who  had  been  buried  up 
to  the  neck,  in  a  large  olla,  and  compelled  to  remain  in  it 
all  night,  by  order  of  the  Chief  Brother.  One  man  was 
compelled  to  give  up  half  of  his  herd  and  sheep  and  whip 
himself  to  and  from  the  Campo  Santo,  because  of  a 
wrong  committed,  and  still  another  crawled  from  his 
home  on  his  knees,  carrying  a  bundle  of  chollas  on  his 
bare  back,  to  the  home  of  another  whom  he  had  injured. 
There  are  many  rumours  afloat  of  brothers  who,  having 
violated  the  secrets  of  the  order,  have  been  buried  alive, 
but,  of  course,  such  rumours  are  almost  impossible  to 
verify. 

Such  was  the  state  of  affairs  thirty,  even  twenty,  years 
ago.  But  the  march  of  civilization  is  rapidly  changing 
affairs,  and  men  in  authority  are  beginning  to  care  less 
for  penitente  opinion,  influence,  or  threats.  Quite  re- 
cently in  one  penitente  stronghold  —  a  county  seat  — 
several  men  were  arrested  for  violating  federal  statutes 
in  regard  to  selling  liquor  to  Indians.  The  first  man  tried 
was  convicted.  The  second  and  third  were  penitentes. 
Strong  influence  was  brought  to  bear  against  having  these 
men  even  brought  to  trial  and  when  they  were  finally 
arraigned  before  the  U.  S.  Commissioner  the  courtroom 
was  filled  with  armed  and  angry  penitentes,  and  a  large 
mob  of  them  gathered  outside,  clearly  for  the  purpose 
of  intimidating  the  Commissioner.  He,  however,  was  a 
man  of  sturdier  type  who  believed  in  observing  the  law, 
and  in  enforcing  it  upon  wrongdoers,  and  he  contrived  in 


300    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

some  way  to  let  the  Hermano  Mayor  know  that  if  any 
riot  occurred,  or  any  other  untoward  thing  happened, 
he  would  personally  be  held  responsible.  The  trial  pro- 
ceeded, the  men  were  found  guilty  and  sentenced,  and  the 
penitentes  began  to  realize  that  they  were  living  in  a  land 
where  they,  as  well  as  all  other  citizens,  were  amenable 
to  the  law. 

Lummis  quotes  a  song  I  have  several  times  heard,  and 
which  shows  how  some  outsiders  regard  the  morals  and 
flagellations  of  the  penitentes.     It  runs : 

"  Penitente  pecador, 

Porque  te  andas  azotando?" 
"  Por  una  vaca  que  robe 

Y  aqui  la  ando  disquitando." 

Which  is,  by  interpretation, 

*  Penitente  sinner, 

Why  do  you  go  whipping  yourself?" 
"  For  a  cow  that  I  stole, 

And  here  I  go  paying  for  her." 

Considering  the  facts  I  have  related  it  can  well  be 
understood  that  for  many  years  I  regarded  the  penitentes 
as  incomprehensible  fanatics,  hypnotized  into  such  super- 
stitious and  zealous  frenzy  that  they  were  largely  unaware 
of  what  they  were  doing  to  themselves,  and  that  the  whole 
organization  and  its  life  depended  upon  the  fostering  of 
these  superstitious  and  fanatical  ideas  by  wicked,  crafty, 
cunning,  and  self-seeking  leaders. 

But  of  late  years  I  am  free  to  confess,  there  has  been 
growing  within  me  a  strong  belief  that  these  explanations 
of  penitente  phenomena  are  inadequate  and  insufficient. 
Something  more  is  needed  than  blind,  fanatical,  super- 
stitious faith  in  the  word  of  a  leader,  however  crafty  and 
cunning  and  specious  he  may  be. 

Is  there  not  in  the  human  heart,  at  times,  at  certain 


The  American  Passion  Play 301 

stages  in  our  mental  and  moral  development,  a  natural 
desire  for  self-abasement,  self-punishment?  Every  peo- 
ple of  every  clime  in  some  period  of  their  existence  has 
had  its  "  penitentes."  From  the  aboriginal  peoples  whose 
shamans  often  carry  the  sins  of  their  fellows  away  into 
the  desert, —  as  the  scapegoat  of  the  Jews  of  the  Exodus 
carried  theirs  into  the  wilderness, —  through  the  fakirs 
of  India,  the  ascetics  of  medieval  times  to  the  monks  and 
nuns  of  our  own  day,  the  controlling  idea  is  the  same. 
Therefore  I  no  longer  dismiss  the  penitente  with  the 
shouts,  "  Fanatic !  "  "  Ignorantly  superstitious !  "  I 
don't  understand  him,  quite.  Perhaps  I  never  shall. 
"Quien  sabe?" 


CHAPTER  XVIII 

THE    MOUNTAINS    OF    NEW    MEXICO 

Those  who  judge  New  Mexico  solely  by  what  they  see 
traveling  over  main  lines  of  railway  to  California  know 
little  or  nothing  of  the  wonderful  charm  and  delight 
found  in  its  mountains.  Within  its  confines  are  to  be 
found  ranges  that  combine  all  the  distinguishing  charac- 
teristics of  the  Adirondacks,  the  Alleganies,  the  White 
Mountains  of  New  England,  and  the  Cumberland  Moun- 
tains of  Tennessee.  Even  rare  and  strange  human  ele- 
nents  are  not  wanting,  for  there  are  miner  and  prospector- 
hermits,  scholarly  students  bent  on  discovering  facts  and 
principles  that  they  deem  are  hidden  here,  and  Indians 
whose  history  was  hoary  long  prior  to  Columbus  or  even 
the  birth  of  Christ. 

While  by  far  the  greater  part  of  the  State  is  composed 
of  grassy  plains  and  arid  valleys  lying  between  the  levels 
of  4,000  and  7,000  feet,  it  is  also  diversified  by  higher 
mountain  ranges  which  stand  out  in  bold  relief,  usually 
capped  with  dark  forests.  Here  and  there  are  to  be  seen 
half-barren,  jagged  little  peaks  and  ridges,  rich  in  desert 
colours,  quaint  vegetation,  and  interesting  forms  of  ani- 
mal life,  and  often  rich  in  minerals.  The  lowest  part 
of  the  State  is  in  the  south,  where  the  Pecos  River 
crosses  the  line  at  about  2,800  feet  elevation,  and  the  Rio 
Grande  at  about  3,700  feet,  while  the  highest  is  in  the 
north,  where  Wheeler  Peak  towers  above  the  northern- 
most of  the  Pueblo  towns  —  that  of  Taos  —  at  an  alti- 
tude of  13,600  feet. 

302 


The  Mountains  of  New  Mexico        303 

While  I  have  climbed  practically  all  the  high  moun- 
tains of  New  Mexico  the  following  descriptions  are  taken 
bodily  from  Vernon  Bailey's  Life  Zones  and  Crop  Zones 
of  New  Mexico,  a  monograph  issued  by  the  Biological 
Survey  of  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture.  Profes- 
sor Bailey  and  his  wife,  Mrs.  Florence  Merriam  Bailey, 
have  spent  many  months,  scattered  over  a  large  period 
of  years,  in  studying  the  plant,  bird  and  animal  life  con- 
ditions of  New  Mexico,  and  the  State  owes  much  to  their 
devotion  and  their  faithful  and  happy  transcriptions  of 
the  results  of  their  observations. 

New  Mexico  would  be  a  sad  and  forsaken  land,  indeed, 
were  it  not  for  the  mountains.  They  are  just  as  essential 
to  human  and  agricultural  life  as  her  valleys,  for  without 
them  the  latter  would  almost  be  waterless  and  hence  un- 
livable. 

For  half  the  year  the  higher  mountains  are  practically 
uninhabitable  on  account  of  cold  weather  and  deep  snow, 
but  for  the  other  half,  when  they  are  pouring  streams  of 
clear  water  into  the  lowlands,  they  are  serving  also  as 
the  summer  resort  and  pleasure  ground  for  the  valley 
dwellers,  not  only  from  New  Mexico,  but  from  other 
States.  There  is  therefore  an  imperative  need  for  the 
careful  guarding  of  these  valuable  assets  of  a  develop- 
ing State :  Water,  forests,  grass,  and  a  great  outdoor 
playground  for  its  people.  An  intimate  knowledge  of 
the  more  important  ranges  is  the  first  step  toward  ade- 
quate protection  of  their  natural  resources. 

Two  branches  of  the  main  Rocky  Mountain  mass  of 
Colorado  extend  into  northern  New  Mexico,  the  San  Juan 
Range  on  the  west  and  the  Sangre  de  Cristo  Range  on 
the  east  of  the  Rio  Grande  Valley.  The  Sangre  de 
Cristo  is  the  highest  and  most  extensive  range  in  the 
State,  with  broad  plateaus,  high  mountain  valleys,  and 


304     New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

three  groups  of  peaks  (Culebra,  Taos,  and  Truchas)  ris- 
ing above  [3,000  feet  From  Colorado  it  extends  south 
between  and  a  little  beyond  Santa  Fe  and  Fas  Vegas  in  a 
broad  and  well-defined  range.  The  lowest  saddle  in  this 
range  is  Taos  Fass.  9,280  feet:  the  highest  point  is 
Wheeler  Feak.  [3,600  feet.  There  is  usually  a  central 
crest  of  sharp  peaks  and  ridges  rising  above  the  broad 
shoulders  of  the  elevated  plateau.  In  places  the  range 
IS  double,  with  high  interior  valleys,  and  throughout  it  has 
a  complex  series  of  long,  steep,  and  often  rocky  exterior 
ridges  reaching  down  to  the  outer  plains.  The  upper 
slopes,  lying  mainly  above  io.cxx^  feet,  are  deeply  cut  or 
broadly  rounded  by  comparatively  recent  glacial  action. 
Numerous  cirques  or  glacial  amphitheaters  cutting  into 
the  base  of  the  higher  ridges  and  peaks  give  ample  evi- 
dence of  the  forces  that  chiseled  the  cliffs  and  gouged  the 
hollows.  Numerous  ami  often  extensive  lateral  or  ter- 
minal moraines  stretch  across  or  along  the  edges  of  the 
valleys.  An  example  of  the  usual  type  of  stream  source 
in  these  well-watered  mountains  is  the  head  of  Pecos 
River.  A  mile  below  the  little  lake,  at  11.700  feet,  from 
which  the  river  rises,  the  stream  rushes  down  a  morainal 
dam.  apparently  500  or  000  feet  high,  to  flow  for  some 
distance  through  a  round-bottomed  valley,  after  which  it 
cuts  its  way  out  of  the  mountains  through  a  sharp-bot- 
tomed gulch.  Numerous  other  lakes,  some  mere  shal- 
low ponds  of  snow  water,  others  deep  green  basins  left 
behind  the  moraines  or  scooped  out  of  the  solid  rock  in 
glacial  paths,  form  the  headwaters  of  visible  or  hidden 
streams.  These  are  mainly  near  or  above  11.000  feet. 
but  lower  down  the  stream  courses  are  almost  devoid  of 
natural  reservoirs.  Springs  and  creeks  are  numerous 
from  near  timber  line  down  through  the  higher  zones, 
but  become  scarcer  toward  the  base  of  the  mountains  as 


The  Mountains  of  New  Mexico        305 

the  streams  gather  into  larger  and  more  widely  separated 
channels. 

Until  the  midsummer  rains  begin  the  mountain  slopes 
are  drenched  with  melting  snow.  As  late  as  August  14. 
1903,  a  few  large  snow  banks  still  occupied  the  cold  slopes 
of  the  Truchas  Pea!-.-  jne  small  drift  yet  remained 

ind  the  crest  oi  Pecos  Baldy.  On  August  12.  1904, 
a  little  :  the  old  sn  .  still  clung  to  the  col  I  slopes  of 
Taos  and  Wheeler  Peaks,  and  on  August  20,  some  large 
banks  were  found  on  Culebra  Peak.  It  is  doubtful  if  the 
winter's  snow  ever  entirely  leaves  these  tall  crests  of  the 
range,  which  during  most  of  the  short  summer  are  heavily 
streaked  with  white. 

During  July  and  August  showers,  often  violent,  are 
of  frequent  occurrence  al  the  peaks.  In  consequence 
of  this  abundant  moisture  over  the  upper  slo]  es,  vegeta- 
tion has  a  vigorous  grow:'...  even  where  reduced  t  a 
pet  of  Alpine  plants.  The  coniferous  :  rests  .:'  the 
upper  slopes,  where  undisturbed  by  fire,  are  dense  and 
clean.  Gra=s  is  abundant  in  the  open,  and  the  parks  and 
timber-line  meadows  are  brilliant  flower  gardens.  Even 
the  highest  |  iks  hen  not  of  bare  rock,  are  car: 
with  dwarf  Arctic  and  Alpine  plants  E  ex  [uisite  beauty 
and  fragrance. 

:  f  rests  lie  in  well-marked  '  eltSj  r  zones,  around 
these  mountains,  as  is  plainly  seen  ...ere  a  broad  view 
of  the  range  can  be  had  from  an  elevated  point  on  some 
opposite  range.  The  upper  timber  zone,  or  Hudson 
is  but  a  vanishing  fringe  of  forest,  where  the  foxtail  pine 
and  stunted  spruce  and  fir  struggle  for  bare  existence 
among  the  re 

Then  come  the  spruce  and  fir  in  the  Canadian  zone, 
covering  the  slopes  from  9.500  feet  to  12,000  on  the 
southwest  and  from  8,500  to  11,000  feet  01  rth- 


306    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

east.  In  a  few  places,  narrow  tongues  of  trees  reach 
down  into  the  canyons  as  low  as  7,500  feet,  or  even  clear 
through  the  Transition  Zone.  At  one  place  at  7.500  feet 
where  the  Pecos  flows  through  a  deep  narrow  gulch, 
spruces  and  firs  cover  the  cold  slope,  while  just  over  the 
crest  of  the  ridge  on  the  warm  slope  ten  rods  distant 
there  are  nut  pines,  junipers,  and  live  oaks.  Such  over- 
lapping or  interlacing  of  zones  merely  shows  the  extreme 
effect  of  local  configuration  on  temperature. 

The  Transition  Zone  is  that  occupied  by  the  yellow 
pine,  covering  the  lower  slopes  from  approximately  7,500 
to  9,700  feet  on  the  southwest  and  7,000  to  8,500  feet 
on  the  northeast.  Usually  the  yellow  pines  stand  in  scat- 
tering growth  or  open  forest,  occasionally  in  dense  groves 
of  young  trees.  The  Douglas  spruce  also  is  an  important 
tree  in  the  upper  part  of  this  zone,  which  it  invades  from 
the  Canadian  Zone  above,  while  several  of  the  deciduous 
oaks  are  irregularly  distributed  through  it,  and  the  nar- 
row-leaved cotton-wood  borders  most  of  the  streams. 

The  zone  of  juniper  and  nut  pine,  or  Upper  Sonoran 
Zone,  covers  the  foothills  and  reaches  out  over  the  sur- 
rounding plains  and  valleys.  Along  the  Pecos  River 
Valley  it  ascends  on  southwest  slopes  to  about  7,500 
feet  and  along  the  west  base  of  the  range  to  about  the 
same  altitude.  On  northeast  slopes  in  the  Pecos  Valley 
and  along  the  east  base  of  the  range  it  reaches  to  about 
7,000  feet.  The  upper  edge  of  the  zone  is  marked  by  the 
limit  of  nut  pine,  juniper,  several  species  of  cactuses  and 
yuccas,  and  many  shrubby  plants,  and  the  beginning  of 
tall  yellow  pine  timber. 

Animal  life  in  these  mountains  is  abundant  and  in 
many  ways  is  of  unusual  interest.  Such  rare  birds  as 
rosy  finches,  pine  and  evening  grosbeaks,  pipits,  solitaires, 
three-toed  woodpeckers,  and  ptarmigan  are  found  dur- 


The  Mountains  of  New  Mexico        307 

ing  summer  high  up  in  the  mountains,  while  Clark's  nut- 
crackers, Rocky  Mountain  jays,  and  long-crested  jays  are 
regular  camp  visitors.  Water  ouzels  bob  in  the  streams, 
thrushes,  kinglets,  warblers,  vireos,  tanagers,  juncos,  and 
sparrows  sing  exuberantly  during  their  breeding  season, 
and  brilliant  hummingbirds  flash  among  the  flowers. 
There  are  also  a  few  band-tailed  pigeons  and  some  dusky 
grouse  and  wild  turkeys. 

White-tailed  and  mule  deer  are  present,  although  be- 
coming scarce,  coyotes  and  black  bears  are  fairly  common, 
and  there  are  still  a  few  grizzlies  or  silvertips,  gray 
wolves,  and  red  foxes.  The  beavers  are  increasing  un- 
der recent  protection. 

The  big  tuft-eared  gray  squirrels  are  an  interesting 
feature  of  the  yellow  pine  belt,  while  the  little  spruce 
squirrels  and  striped  chipmunks  give  added  life  and  in- 
terest to  the  forest.  Big  woodchucks  whistle  from  the 
ledges  and  boulders  and  the  odd  little  rock  conies  squeak 
and  stack  their  hay  under  slide  rock  near  timber-line. 
Pocket  gophers,  mice,  and  shrews  burrow  into  the  moun- 
tain slopes  or  make  tiny  roads  under  cover  of  protecting 
vegetation. 

Most  of  the  streams  are  well  stocked  with  trout,  which 
often  penetrate  to  the  very  sources  of  the  little  creeks 
above  10,000  feet.  With  proper  restrictions  good  fishing 
and  hunting  can  be  permanently  maintained  and  even 
greatly  improved. 

The  mountains  form  a  natural  park  and  ideal  pleasure 
ground  for  summer  camping  and  attract  more  campers 
each  year.  Some  day  they  may  be  more  highly  valued 
for  this  purpose  than  for  sheep  ranges  and  lumber  yield. 

From  the  majority  of  campers  here,  as  elsewhere,  much 
remains  to  be  desired  in  camp  ethics,  especially  in  guard- 
ing the  forests  from  fire  and  their  inhabitants  from  wan- 


308    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

ton  destruction,  in  beautifying  rather  than  desecrating 
camp  grounds,  in  guarding  streams  from  pollution,  and 
so  sharing  health  and  happiness  with  others  and  passing 
these  advantages  on  to  future  generations.  The  useless 
destruction  of  song  birds  and  harmless  animals  is  due 
mainly  to  ignorance.  To  any  but  a  human  brute  the 
beauty  and  songs  and  interesting  ways  of  our  wood  neigh- 
bours in  feather  or  fur  appeal  more  strongly  than  do  their 
dead  and  mangled  bodies.  From  the  boy  or  man  who 
once  begins  to  study  them  more  closely  than  at  rifle  or 
shotgun  range  they  are  comparatively  safe. 

West  of  the  Rio  Grande  Valley  the  San  Juan  Moun- 
tains extend  from  Colorado  south  to  the  Chama  River, 
which  separates  them  from  the  Jemez  Mountains  and  in- 
terrupts what  would  be  otherwise  a  continuous  range. 
The  San  Juans  are  a  wide  and  not  very  high  range,  with  a 
broad  expanse  of  plateau  top  at  about  10,000  feet  and  few 
points  rising  to  11,000  feet.  Their  broad  middle  slopes 
are  largely  covered  with  open  yellow-pine  forests  and  the 
upper  slopes  with  dense  growth  of  spruce  and  fir,  alter- 
nating with  great  grassy  parks  and  meadows.  On  the 
west  slope  deep  canyons  cut  into  the  range,  and  along  at 
least  one  of  these,  the  Brazos  Canyon,  east  of  Tierra 
Amarillo,  rise  sheer  granite  cliffs,  Yosemite-like  in  size 
and  structure.  The  lack  of  timber-line  peaks  gives  a 
tameness  to  these  mountains  that  is  increased  by  gentle 
slopes  and  good  roads  over  the  highest  parts  of  the  range, 
but  among  the  advantages  are  ease  of  access  to  many 
beautiful  camp  grounds,  good  springs,  abundant  grass, 
cool  forests,  and  many  sunny  slopes,  while  many  rough 
canyons  offer  picturesque  grounds  for  exploration. 

These  mountains  differ  from  the  Sangre  de  Cristo 
range  in  animal  and  plant  life,  mainly  in  the  absence  of 
Hudsonian  and  Arctic  forms  of  higher  altitudes.     Both 


The  Mountains  of  New  Mexico        309 

ranges  are  characterized  by  the  Rocky  Mountain  species 
of  southern  Colorado,  with  comparatively  few  sub-specific 
variations. 

The  Jemez  Mountains  are  of  about  the  same  extent 
and  general  character  as  the  San  Juans,  from  which  they 
are  separated  by  the  deep  narrow  canyon  of  the  Chama 
River.  They  are  largely  volcanic,  with  the  highest  peaks 
standing  as  remnants  of  old  crater  rims  10,000  to  11,500 
feet  high.  Santa  Clara  is  the  highest  peak,  while  several 
others  are  only  a  little  lower.  Pelado  Peak  is  1 1,266  feet 
high,  Abiquiu  11,240,  and  Goat  Peak,  just  south  of  the 
head  of  Santa  Clara  Creek,  10,400. 

None  of  these  reaches  true  timber-line,  although  on 
northeast  slopes  near  their  summits  the  timber  is  dwarfed 
and  a  few  Hudsonian  Zone  plants  are  found. 

On  the  middle  slopes  of  the  mountains,  streams  and 
springs  are  numerous,  but  the  high  peaks  and  ridges  are 
generally  without  water.  Some  of  the  streams  disappear 
or  are  used  for  irrigation  before  they  extend  far  into 
the  valleys,  while  others  carry  their  surplus  water  to  the 
Rio  Grande.  Numerous  dry  washes  show  evidence  of 
fierce  floods  that  tear  down  them  during  heavy  rains. 
The  mountains  are  generally  covered  with  soil  and  vege- 
tation except  where  cliff's  and  canyon  walls  break  through 
and  long  lines  of  broken  lava  extend  down  from  the 
peaks.  A  number  of  large  park-like  valleys  at  8,000  to 
9,000  feet  afford  valuable  grazing  land,  but  most  of  the 
mountain  area  is  well  forested. 

Southwest  of  the  Jemez  Mountains  lies  the  Mount 
Taylor  Range  or  group,  in  close  connection  with  the  Zuni 
Mountains.  There  has  been  much  confusion  in  regard 
to  the  name  of  this  group  of  mountains,  parts  of  which 
have  been  called  San  Mateo,  Sierra  Chivato,  and  Cebol- 
leta  Mountains.     The  name  San  Mateo  is  also  applied 


310     New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

to  the  range  west  of  San  Marcial ;  the  other  names  apply 
to  local  ridges  or  mesas.  As  Mount  Taylor  is  the  highest 
point,  its  name  has  been  used  to  designate  the  group. 

Following  the  Zuni  Mountains  come  the  Datil  and 
Pinyon  Mountains  leading  across  the  high  plains  to  the 
Mogollons,  the  last  great  link  in  the  broken  chain  between 
the  Rocky  Mountains  and  the  Sierra  Madre  of  Mexico. 

The  Mount  Taylor  group  is  a  broad  volcanic  plateau 
with  the  great  ruin  of  an  old  lava  crater,  Mount  Taylor 
proper,  at  its  southern  end,  standing  11,389  feet  at  the 
highest  point  of  its  wide  semicircular  rim  and  inclosing 
a  steep  secondary  cone  about  1,000  feet  high.  Part  of 
the  plateau  is  lava  from  the  old  crater,  part  from  numer- 
ous smaller  craters  scattered  over  its  surface.  Series  of 
great  sandstone  ridges  stretch  away  to  the  west  beyond 
Fort  Wingate,  including  Hosta  Butte,  Navaho  Church, 
Mesa  Butte,  and  Sierra  de  los  Lobos,  which  almost  con- 
nect with  the  Zuni  and  Chusca  Mountains.  These  ridges, 
7,000  and  8,000  feet  high,  are  mainly  flat-topped  mesas 
like  the  Chusca  and  the  western  part  of  the  Zuni  Moun- 
tains. The  mountains  are  not  well  watered.  A  beautiful 
permanent  creek  winds  down  inside  the  old  crater  of 
Mount  Taylor  and  cuts  its  way  out  through  the  broken 
rim  on  the  south. 

A  few  other  little  creeks  and  scattered  springs  break- 
ing out  around  the  edges  of  the  mountains  are  permanent, 
but  the  greater  number  of  streams  are  merely  spring  tor- 
rents from  melting  snow. 

The  Chusca  Mountains  1  are  a  long  low  range,  in  reality 

1  The  name  Chusca,  or  Choiskai,  is  generally  applied  to  the  south- 
ern half,  and  Tunicha,  or  Tunitcha,  to  the  northern  half  of  this 
perfectly  continuous  and  nearly  uniform  range.  There  is  certainly 
not  room  for  two  names,  and  I  have  used  the  one  that  seems  better 
known  and  in  its  shorter  form,  which  is  in  common  use  among  local 
residents. 


The  Mountains  of  New  Mexico        311 

a  long  mesa  or  plateau,  extending  from  a  little  north  of 
Gallup  northward  across  the  New  Mexico  and  Arizona 
line  and  almost  connecting  with  the  Carrizo  Mountains,  a 
higher,  rougher  group  lying  mainly  in  Arizona. 

Most  of  this  mesa  is  of  sandstone,  8,000  to  9,000  feet 
high,  with  abrupt  rimrock  margins,  but  toward  the  north 
there  are  ridges  of  rough  lava  rock  and  basaltic  cliffs. 
The  top  is  an  undulating  forested  country  with  great 
numbers  of  shallow  lakes,  usually  without  outlets.  Be- 
low the  rim  are  numerous  springs  and  short  creeks  that 
rise  in  the  canyons  and  flow  for  a  short  distance  down 
the  steep  slopes  or  in  a  few  cases  out  into  the  neighbour- 
ing valleys.  There  is  abundance  of  water  for  stock,  but 
very  little  for  irrigation. 

The  Navaho  Indians  live  in  large  numbers  in  the  open 
canyons  or  wide  gulches  around  the  base  and  lower  slopes 
of  these  mountains.  Here  on  moist,  mellow  flats  their 
garden  patches  yield  a  good  supply  of  corn  and  wheat, 
beans  and  squashes  for  winter  provisions ;  their  herds  of 
sheep,  goats,  cattle,  and  horses  range  out  on  the  plains, 
or  up  the  mountain  sides;  scattered  nut  pines,  junipers, 
and  live  oaks  furnish  not  only  fuel  and  shelter  but  even 
food;  and  the  yellow  pines  come  down  low  enough  to  be 
available  for  house  logs  and  timbers.  It  is  a  region  of 
primitive  comforts  but  with  no  possibility  of  a  great 
future  in  agriculture. 

In  summer  many  of  the  Indians  with  their  herds  mi- 
grate to  the  cool  broad  top  of  the  range,  where  there  is 
good  grazing  and  abundance  of  water.  Numerous 
hogans,  summer  huts  of  rude  pattern,  are  scattered  over 
the  top,  but  there  are  no  evidences  of  attempted  agricul- 
ture except  the  sheep  corrals  and  occasional  little  horse 
pastures.  During  my  trip  over  the  Chusca  in  October, 
1908,  the  mountains  were  practically  deserted  except  for 


312    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

stray  bands  of  cattle  and  ponies,  and  wisely  so  on  ac- 
count of  cold  nights,  driving  winds,  and  rain  and  snow. 

The  Navaho  Indians  in  their  religious  reverence  for 
feathered  spirits  have  made  their  great  reservation  to 
some  extent  a  bird  preserve.  Ducks  are  unmolested  in 
the  lakes  and  doubtless  breed  there  in  considerable  num- 
bers. Wild  turkeys  have  held  their  own  unusually  well, 
but  have  suffered  somewhat  from  hunting  by  outsiders 
and  Christianized  Indians.  Some  mammals,  considered 
sacred,  especially  the  black  bear  and  coyote,  have  also 
thrived,  while  the  mule  deer  and  antelope  have  been  ex- 
terminated over  a  wide  area.  Prairie  dogs  are  now  popu- 
lar game  animals  and  the  Indians,  who  shoot  and  dig  them 
out  for  food,  have  almost  depopulated  some  of  the  dog 
towns. 

Another  range  of  mountains  seen  from  the  Santa  Fe 
trains  opposite  the  Mount  Taylor  range,  is  that  known 
as  the  Zuni  Mountains. 

At  their  highest  eastern  end,  where  Mount  Sedgwick 
rises  to  an  altitude  of  about  9,300  feet,  the  Zuni  Moun- 
tains are  rough  and  volcanic,  but  to  the  west  they  are 
great  flat-topped  ridges  8,000  to  9,000  feet  high,  largely 
of  sandstone  with  abrupt  rimrock  edges.  Extensive  lava 
fields  with  numerous  small  craters  stretch  off  to  the  south 
and  east,  while  isolated  buttes  and  ridges  are  scattered 
beyond. 

The  mountains  are  well  timbered  but  poorly  watered. 
The  few  small  streams  that  flow  down  the  mountain  val- 
leys reach  the  plains  only  during  high  water.  The  timber 
is  mainly  yellow  pine  in  open  forest,  now  largely  cut  over 
but  originally  of  great  extent  and  value.  There  are  some 
Douglas  spruces  and  Gambel  oaks ;  aspens  and  spruces 
cover  the  higher  cold  slopes  and  we  found  there  in  June 
a  number  of  Canadian  Zone  birds,  such  as  the  western 


The  Mountains  of  New  Mexico        313 

goshawk,  long-crested  jay,  Clark's  nutcracker,  junco, 
Williamson's  and  red-naped  sapsuckers,  broad-tailed  hum- 
mingbird, western  flycatcher,  pine  siskin,  ruby-crowned 
kinglet,  Audubon's  warbler,  brown  creeper,  and  Audu- 
bon's hermit  thrush. 

The  necessity  for  a  group  of  names  for  the  mountains 
of  western  Socorro  County,  New  Mexico,  is  apparent  to 
all  who  know  or  speak  of  them.  While  the  maps  give 
names  to  the  many  local  ranges  comprising  this  group, 
people  constantly  speak  of  these  ranges  collectively  by  the 
name  of  the  highest  central  peaks,  the  "  Mogollons."  In 
the  broadest  sense  of  this  term  is  made  to  include  the 
Mogollon,  Burro,  Black,  Mimbres,  Diablo,  Little  Elk, 
Tularosa,  Tucson,  Datil,  Pinyon,  Oak  Spring,  and  San 
Francisco  Ranges,  which  form  one  extensive  and  regular 
mountain  mass,  a  continuation  of  the  chain  which  in- 
cludes the  White  Mountains  of  Arizona.  The  name  has 
now  become  restricted  to  that  part  of  this  chain  lying 
in  middle  western  New  Mexico.  To  the  northwestward 
they  are  loosely  connected  through  the  White  and  San 
Francisco  Mountains  of  Arizona  with  the  ranges  extend- 
ing through  central  Utah,  and  still  more  loosely  through 
the  Zuni  Mountains  with  the  Rocky  Mountains  of  north- 
ern New  Mexico  and  Colorado.  But  in  both  these  cases 
the  connection  is  much  closer  than  with  the  Sierra  Madre 
of  Mexico  to  the  south,  where  a  broad  belt  of  low  plains 
intervenes. 

The  greater  part  of  the  Mogollon  Mountain  mass  is 
rough  plateau  7,000  to  8,000  feet  high,  deeply  cut  with 
many  canyons  and  here  and  there  ridged  with  9,000-  and 
10,000-foot  ranges.  At  least  three  of  the  central  peaks 
of  the  Mogollons  reach  an  altitude  of  about  11,000  feet, 
but  not  high  enough  for  any  true  timber-line  or  for  many 
Hudsonian  Zone  species.     Still  they  are  high  enough  to 


314    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

be  of  great  importance,  for  on  the  border  of  a  region  of 
low  hot  deserts  they  receive  a  heavy  fall  of  rain  and  snow. 
They  feed  most  of  the  sources  of  the  Gila  River,  several 
forks  of  which  rise  close  under  the  highest  peaks,  and  they 
have  been  called  the  Gila  Mountains.  They  are  covered 
by  the  Datil  National  Forest  on  the  north  and  the  Gila 
National  Forest  on  the  south,  formerly  mainly  included 
under  the  name  Gila  National  Forest. 

The  mountains  are  largely  volcanic,  and  many  of  the 
high  ridges  and  plateau  tops  are  very  old,  deeply  cut,  and 
eroded  lava  rock.  There  are  many  other  formations, 
however,  including  numerous  ore-bearing  strata.  Many 
of  the  cliffs  and  canyon  walls  along  the  branches  of  the 
Gila  and  San  Francisco  Rivers  are  sandstone,  much 
eroded  and  full  of  cracks  and  caves. 

The  Canadian  Zone  of  this  group  which  ranges  above 
8,500  feet  on  the  cold  slopes  and  9,500  feet  on  the  warm 
ones,  is  generally  steep  and  difficult  of  access,  of  little 
value  for  timber,  and  of  less  use  for  stock  or  agriculture. 
Its  worth  as  a  source  of  water  supply  for  rich  valleys 
below  can  hardly  be  realized.  As  a  permanent  breeding 
ground  for  game  birds  and  mammals,  as  a  source  of 
beautiful  and  teeming  trout  streams,  and  as  an  ideal 
camping  resort  to  which  people  flock  from  the  hot  valleys 
below,  its  importance  is  steadily  increasing. 

Below  this  comes  the  Transition  Zone,  which  is  char- 
acterized by  beautiful  open  forests  of  yellow  pines,  with 
scattered  Douglas  spruce  and  a  sprinkling  of  Mexican 
white  pine.  In  places  there  are  scrubby  oaks  of  the  gam- 
beli  group,  the  white-leaved  oak,  and  New  Mexico  locust, 
and  along  the  streams  are  generally  fringes  of  narrow- 
leaved  cottonwood,  alders,  willows,  and  cornel. 

This  open  clean-trunked  forest  is  not  only  of  great 
and  permanent  value  as  a  source  of  lumber  supply  to  a 


The  Mountains  of  New  Mexico        315 

vast  treeless  region,  but  it  affords  much  of  the  finest 
grazing  land  in  the  State.  There  is  far  more  humidity 
than  in  the  valleys,  and  if  the  range  is  not  overstocked 
the  grazing  need  not  interfere  with  forest  growth  and 
reproduction. 

Some  agriculture  on  very  restricted  areas  would  be 
possible  in  this  zone,  but  its  value  would  be  little  in  com- 
parison with  that  of  the  present  forest,  water,  and  graz- 
ing. Over  a  great  part  of  the  area  the  surface  presents 
the  formation  commonly  termed  malpdis,  which  consists 
of  extensive  lava  beds  partly  covered  with  thin  layers  of 
soil  and  with  angular  fragments  of  lava  strewing  the 
ground  so  thickly  as  to  make  traveling  difficult,  and  in 
most  places  to  render  cultivation  impossible. 

The  Magdalena  and  San  Mateo  Mountains  are  so 
closely  connected  with  the  Mogollon  Mountains  and  re- 
semble them  so  much  in  general  features  and  fauna  and 
flora  that  they  might  well  be  included  in  the  group  if  nar- 
row Upper  Sonoran  valleys  did  not  intervene.  The  fol- 
lowing description  is  from  reports  by  E.  A.  Goldman, 
who  has  worked  in  both  ranges. 

They  extend  along  the  west  side  of  the  Rio  Grande 
Valley  in  Socorro  County  as  steep,  rugged  desert  ranges, 
reaching  approximately  10,000  feet  in  altitude.  They  are 
very  rocky,  with  numerous  side  canyons  and  sharp  ridges 
and  steep  slide  rock  slopes.  They  retain  but  little  of  the 
water  that  falls  on  them,  and  while  showing  deep  erosion 
they  have  few  streams  and  only  occasional  springs.  The 
little  available  water  along  their  basal  slopes  is,  however, 
of  great  value,  as  the  surrounding  country  is  devoted 
mainly  to  stock  raising. 

They  are  scantily  forested  with  the  usual  Rocky  Moun- 
tain trees. 

Three  life  zones  are  represented :  Canadian,  Transition, 


316    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

and  Upper  Sonoran.  The  Canadian  Zone  covers  a  nar- 
row crest  along  each  range  and  extends  down  to  9,500 
feet  altitude  on  hot  slopes  and  to  8,500  feet  on  cold 
slopes.  It  is  characterized  by  such  trees  as  the  aspen, 
white  fir,  Douglas  spruce,  and  Rocky  Mountain  maple; 
by  the  long-crested  jays,  Clark's  nutcracker,  junco,  and 
Townsend's  solitaire ;  and  by  the  Rocky  Mountain 
meadow  mouse,  a  red-backed  mouse,  and  a  little  shrew. 

Transition  Zone  covers  the  lower  slopes  of  the  moun- 
tains from  about  7,000  to  8,500  feet  on  cold  slopes  and 
from  8,000  to  9,500  feet  on  hot  slopes.  It  is  character- 
ized by  scattered  yellow  pines,  narrow-leaved  cotton- 
woods,  oaks  of  the  Quercus  gambeli  group,  Ceanothus 
fendleri,  Sericotheca,  Primus,  gooseberries,  and  currants. 
Its  birds  and  mammals  are  practically  the  same  as  those 
of  the  Transition  Zone  of  the  Mogollon  Mountains. 

The  Upper  Sonoran  foothills  and  basal  slopes  are  char- 
acterized by  the  usual  juniper,  nut  pine,  live  oak,  bear 
grass,  yucca,  and  cactus.  There  are  numerous  dry  washes 
and  a  few  springs  and  streams.  Agriculture  is  limited 
mainly  by  lack  of  water  to  a  few  garden  patches  and  a 
little  fruit  raised  for  home  use  in  the  canyons  and  gulches. 
There  is  usually  good  grazing  over  the  foothills  and  basal 
plains,  and  stock  raising  is  an  important  industry. 

The  San  Luis  and  Animas  Mountains  form  in  the 
southwestern  corner  of  New  Mexico  the  northern  termi- 
nus of  the  Sierra  Madre  of  Mexico.  The  higher  part 
of  the  San  Luis  range  lies  south  of  the  boundary  line, 
but  the  Animas  range,  north  of  San  Luis  Pass,  is  practi- 
cally a  continuation  of  it,  and  attains  an  altitude  of  8,600 
feet  near  its  northern  end.  The  Big  Hatchet  Mountains 
(8,300  feet)  and  Peloncillo  Mountains  (about  6,500  feet) 
are  outlying  ranges  less  closely  connected  with  the  main 
Sierra  Madre  but  largely  occupied  by  the  same  set  of 


The  Mountains  of  New  Mexico        317 

species.  Hemmed  in  on  the  north,  east,  and  west  by  hot 
Lower  Sonoran  valleys,  these  steep,  rough,  arid  little 
ranges  are  widely  separated  from  the  Mogollons  and 
Rocky  Mountains  on  the  north.  As  the  Animas  peaks 
are  the  highest  and  most  northern  part  of  this  ragged 
terminus  of  a  great  range,  their  plant  and  animal  life  is  of 
particular  interest. 

While  the  San  Luis  and  Animas  Mountains  are  of  rela- 
tively slight  importance  for  lumber,  grazing,  or  agricul- 
ture, they  still  catch  moisture  and  render  the  surrounding 
valleys  habitable  and  valuable.  There  are  no  rivers  of 
any  importance  for  irrigation,  but  the  streams  that  sink 
at  the  base  or  half  way  up  the  sides  of  the  mountains 
break  out  lower  down  in  springs,  or  carry  a  supply  of 
good  water  below  the  surface  to  the  bottoms  of  broad 
valleys.  Thus  stock  raising  becomes  the  most  important 
industry,  and  where  open  water  cannot  be  found  within 
reach  of  good  grazing  areas,  wells  or  tanks  are  used. 
Eventually  parts  of  these  warm  rich-soiled  valleys  will  be 
reclaimed  by  pumping  from  wells  or  reservoirs  supplied 
by  water  from  the  mountain  slopes. 

Incidentally  the  mountains  are  of  some  value  as  nat- 
ural game  preserves,  but  in  such  small  areas  the  game 
will  soon  be  exterminated  unless  protected.  At  present 
the  country  is  so  thinly  settled  that  protection  for  game 
depends  mainly  on  the  interest  of  the  ranch  owners  and 
the  more  intelligent  settlers.  In  most  cases,  however, 
local  interests  are  powerless  against  outside  hunting  par- 
ties and  irresponsible  campers,  though  the  New  Mexico 
Game  Protective  Association  has  done  excellent  work  in 
warning  and  punishing  violators  of  the  law  during  the 
past  few  years. 

The  Big  Hatchet  Mountains,  according  to  Ranger  E.  A. 
Goldman,  which  are  in  the  southeastern  part  of  Grant 


318    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

County,  form  a  steep,  rugged,  desert  range  with  a  trend 
from  northwest  to  southeast.  They  are  steep  and  rough 
on  all  sides,  but  are  tilted  upward  very  abruptly  toward 
the  west.  The  highest  peak,  near  the  northern  end  of 
the  range,  is  over  8,000  feet  high.  Toward  the  southern 
end  the  range  divides  and  nearly  surrounds  a  small,  open 
valley,  while  farther  south  rises  another  rugged  but  lower 
desert  range  or  group  called  the  Alamo  Hueco  or  Dog 
Mountains.  On  the  northeast  of  the  Big  Hatchet  Moun- 
tains the  low  range  called  Doyle  Hills  crosses  the  inter- 
national boundary  into  Chihuahua,  and  farther  to  the 
eastward  in  Chihuahua  is  the  Sierra  Boca  Grande,  simi- 
lar in  height,  trend,  and  general  character  to  the  Big 
Hatchet  Mountains.  All  the  mountains  of  the  general 
region  are  very  arid,  and  no  permanent  water  or  even 
temporary  "  tanks  "  are  found  in  the  Big  Hatchet  Moun- 
tains. The  broad,  gently  sloping  Hachita  Valley  ex- 
tends along  the  eastern  side  of  the  mountains,  at  about 
4,200  feet  altitude,  with  drainage  toward  Lake  Guzman, 
Chihuahua,  while  the  Great  Playas  Valley  lies  west  of 
the  mountains. 

The  Manzano  and  Sandia  Mountains  form  the  eastern 
border  of  the  Rio  Grande  Valley  opposite  Albuquerque 
and  Belen.  The  northern  part  of  the  range  is  known  as 
the  Sandias  and  the  southern  part  as  the  Manzanos,  the 
two  ranges  being  separated  by  a  high  pass  or  open  saddle. 
The  Manzanos  are  joined  loosely  toward  the  south  to  the 
lower  San  Andres  Mountains  by  way  of  the  Cerro  Mon- 
toso,  Chupadero  Mesa,  and  Sierra  Oscuro,  but  the  main 
part  of  the  range  includes  only  the  Manzano  and  Sandia 
Mountains,  which  reach  altitudes  of  about  10,000  and 
11,000  feet,  respectively,  and  carry  narrow  crests  of  the 
Canadian  Zone  and  a  wider  and  continuous  area  of  the 
Transition  Zone.     On  the  west  these  ranges  drop  abruptly 


The  Mountains  of  New  Mexico        319 

to  the  low  Rio  Grande  Valley,  while  eastward  they  slope 
off  gradually  to  the  high  open  plains.  The  upper  zones 
are  narrow  on  the  steep,  barren  west  slope  and  much 
wider  on  the  gradual  and  better-forested  eastern  side. 
Though  in  the  midst  of  an  arid  country,  these  mountains 
are  high  enough  to  induce  considerable  precipitation, 
which  results  in  a  good  cover  of  vegetation  and  extensive 
forests.  There  are  numerous  springs  and  a  good  supply 
of  underground  water  far  down  the  slopes,  but  streams 
are  few  and  mainly  ephemeral. 

The  Canadian  Zone  covers  the  tops  of  these  mountains 
and  the  cold  slopes  down  to  about  8,000  feet.  It  is  well 
marked  by  a  rather  meager  forest  of  white  fir,  blue  spruce, 
Douglas  spruce,  Pinus  Hexilis,  aspen,  and  Rocky  Moun- 
tain maple,  with  mountain  ash,  alders,  and  willows  in  cold 
gulches  and  along  streams.  It  has  a  few  characteristic 
mammals,  the  spruce  squirrel,  pocket  gopher,  dusky 
shrew,  and  probably  others  not  yet  recorded.  The  breed- 
ing birds  are  little  known,  as  most  of  the  field  work  done 
in  the  range  has  been  late  in  the  season.  On  July  30  I 
found  half-grown  wild  turkeys  near  the  top  of  the  Man- 
zano  range,  but  they  may  have  wandered  up  from  below 
after  the  nesting  season.  I  also  found  olive-sided  fly- 
catchers, juncos,  and  thrushes  that  were  probably  on  their 
breeding  grounds. 

The  Upper  Sonoran  Zone  of  the  foothills  and  sur- 
rounding valleys  is  the  main  zone  of  agriculture  and  stock 
raising.  The  foothill  division  of  this  zone  is  of  particu- 
lar interest  along  the  eastern  slope  of  the  mountain,  where 
it  carries  picturesque  little  forests  of  nut  pine,  juniper, 
and  scrub  oaks,  with  tree  cactus,  prickly  pear,  yuccas, 
red  barberry,  skunk  brush  (Schmaltma  trilobata) ,  and 
other  shrubs  scattered  between.  Many  little  farms  and 
stock  ranches  are  located  along  this  slope  in  sheltered 


320    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 


corners  where  some  irrigation  is  obtained  from  flood 
water  and  where  dry  farming  yields  occasional  crops. 
The  old  apple  trees  at  Manzano,  from  which  the  moun- 
tains are  named,  are  said  to  be  over  one  hundred  years 
old.  They  are  very  large  but  yield  poor  ungrafted  fruit. 
Much  if  not  most  of  this  juniper  belt  would  seem  ad- 
mirably adapted  to  apples  if  sufficient  moisture  for  the 
growth  of  trees  and  fruit  could  by  proper  cultivation  be 
conserved  in  the  soil. 

The  natural  growth  of  grama  and  other  grasses  is  good 
and  forms  fine  grazing,  while  the  gulches  and  timber  af- 
ford good  shelter  for  stock. 

The  name  Sacramento  Mountains  is  applied  by  the 
United  States  Geographic  Board  to  the  range  lying  west 
of  Pecos  Valley,  and  includes  the  groups  locally  known 
as  the  Jicarilla,  Sierra  Blanca,  Sacramento,  and  Guada- 
lupe Mountains.  These  form  a  practically  continuous 
chain  of  ranges  about  one  hundred  and  forty  miles  in 
length  and  thirty  miles  in  greatest  width.  They  lie  be- 
tween the  Pecos  and  Alamogordo  valleys  and  extend  a 
little  below  the  Texas  line.  On  the  west  and  north  they 
are  distantly  linked  by  high  mesas  with  the  Manzano 
Range  and  these  again  by  other  high  mesas  with  the 
Sangre  de  Cristo  Mountains,  which  are  part  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains  proper. 

Sierra  Blanca,  the  highest  peak  in  the  range,  rises 
1 1, 880  feet.  The  Captains  are  over  10,000  feet,  the  Sac- 
ramentos,  near  Cloudcroft,  9,500  feet,  and  the  Guada- 
lupes,  near  the  Texas  line,  9,000  feet.  The  lowest  pass 
is  over  the  Guadalupe  arm,  which  comes  down  to  about 
7,000  feet.  On  the  west  and  at  the  north  and  south  ends 
the  mountains  are  abrupt  and  rugged,  while  on  the  east 
in  the  broad  central  part  they  slope  gradually  down  to  the 
broad  plains  of  the  Pecos  Valley.     The  various  groups 


The  Mountains  of  New  Mexico        321 

form  a  well-timbered  range  in  the  midst  of  arid  plains, 
carrying  a  few  Mexican  or  peculiar  species  or  subspecies 
of  animals  and  plants,  but  dominated  largely  by  Rocky 
Mountain  species. 

The  Canadian  Zone  of  this  group  of  mountains  is  one 
of  cool  coniferous  forests  throughout  which  are  numer- 
ous parks  and  spruce-bordered  grassy  gulches  where 
springs  and  little  streams  afford  conditions  for  delightful 
summer  camps.  For  the  people  of  southeastern  New 
Mexico  and  much  of  western  Texas  it  is  the  most  con- 
venient resort  during  the  long  hot  summers.  Railroads 
and  wagon  roads  make  the  mountains  easy  of  access  at 
many  points  and  the  national  forests  should  insure  the 
protection  of  this  natural  park  region.  Only  a  few  years 
ago  it  was  famous  for  its  variety  and  abundance  of  game, 
especially  elk,  mule  deer,  white-tailed  deer,  antelope,  big- 
horn, black  and  silver-tip  bears,  and  wild  turkeys.  The 
elk  are  now  exterminated  and  other  game  birds  and  ani- 
mals are  becoming  scarce,  but  it  is  hoped  that  they  can  be 
protected  so  that  present  numbers  at  least  shall  be  main- 
tained. 


CHAPTER  XIX 

THE    NATIONAL    FORESTS    OF    NEW    MEXICO 

Many  people  who  have  seen  New  Mexico  only  from 
the  transcontinental  trains  have  the  impression  that  the 
State  is  largely  desert.  This  is  because  the  railways,  in 
order  to  find  the  easiest  grades,  naturally  avoid  the  moun- 
tain ranges  and  seek  the  more  convenient  elevations. 
Few  people  are  aware  that  on  the  higher  elevations  of 
New  Mexico  are  to  be  found  millions  of  acres  of  great 
forests,  green  mountain  pastures,  clear  cold  trout  streams, 
and  a  summer  climate  that  combines  all  the  sunshine  of 
the  desert  with  the  cool  mountain  air  born  only  of  pines 
and  snow-capped  peaks.  This  mountain  country  of  New 
Mexico  lies  mostly  within  the  National  Forests.  These 
forest  areas  contain  not  only  a  large  proportion  of  the 
material  wealth  and  resources  of  the  State,  but  offer  as 
well  a  unique  variety  of  opportunities  for  sport,  rest,  and 
recreation  to  the  city  dweller  and  tourist. 

There  are  seven  National  Forests  in  New  Mexico, 
comprising  a  gross  area  of  approximately  ten  million 
acres  and  bearing  a  timber  stand  of  fifteen  billion  board 
feet  of  timber.  They  are  administered  by  the  Govern- 
ment with  the  purpose  of  insuring  a  permanent  timber 
supply  and  to  prevent  the  destruction  of  the  forest  cover 
which  regulates  the  flow  of  streams.  They  provide  for 
a  permanent  lumbering  industry;  supply  material  needful 
for  the  development  of  ranches,  farms,  and  cities ;  pro- 
tect the  watersheds  essential  to  agricultural  development ; 
add  stability  to  the  livestock  industry ;  promote  the  de- 

322 


The  National  Forests  of  New  Mexico     323 

velopment  of  facilities  for  transportation  and  communi- 
cation on  the  forest  areas,  and  contribute  through  the 
receipts  derived  from  their  administration  to  the  road 
and  school  funds  of  the  counties  in  which  they  are  situ- 
ated. Mining,  agriculture,  and  all  other  uses  of  the  for- 
est areas  not  incompatible  with  their  primary  purpose, 
are  encouraged  by  the  Forest  Service. 

The  timber  resources  of  the  New  Mexico  National 
Forests,  under  forest  management,  are  estimated  to  have 
a  present  annual  productive  capacity  of  about  eighty  mil- 
lion board  feet  of  lumber,  sufficient  to  build  each  year 
8,000  homes  for  the  people  of  the  State,  without  diminish- 
ing the  stand  or  forest  capital.  This  annual  production 
may  be  expected  largely  to  increase  with  the  practice  of 
better  methods  of  management.  The  watersheds  which 
the  forests  protect  affect  the  flow  of  most  of  the  important 
streams  in  the  State,  and  all  of  the  larger  irrigated  dis- 
tricts derive  a  large  part  of  their  water  supply  from  the 
National  Forests. 

The  greatest  enemy  of  the  timber  and  water  supply  of 
New  Mexico  is  fire.  Before  the  creation  of  the  National 
Forests,  forest  fires  destroyed  millions  of  feet  of  timber 
annually.  But  with  the  present  system  of  lookout  tow- 
ers, telephone  lines,  and  trails,  the  Forest  Rangers  are 
enabled  to  detect  and  reach  all  fires  with  great  prompt- 
ness, and  over  ninety  per  cent  are  extinguished  before 
they  have  covered  ten  acres. 

The  Forest  ranges  of  New  Mexico  are  a  large  factor 
in  the  livestock  industry  of  the  State.  One  hundred  and 
eighty-three  thousand  head  of  cattle  and  horses  and  five 
hundred  and  fifteen  thousand  head  of  sheep  and  goats  are 
grazed  each  year  for  a  small  fee  per  head.  The  grazing 
regulations  of  the  Forest  Service  are  aimed  to  protect  the 
small  stockmen  and  to  produce  an  equitable  distribution 


324    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

of  grazing  privileges  and  a  permanent  grazing  industry. 
Under  scientific  management  the  productive  capacity  of 
the  forest  ranges  is  increasing  each  year  through  the  de- 
velopment of  watering  places,  the  construction  of  range 
improvements,  and  the  improvement  of  the  forage  crop. 

The  Forest  Service  is  rapidly  improving  transporta- 
tion and  communication  facilities  on  the  New  Mexico 
forests.  It  has  built  1,200  miles  of  telephone  lines,  83 
miles  of  new  roads,  and  1,200  miles  of  trails  for  the  pur- 
pose of  facilitating  administration  and  protection  of  the 
forest  areas. 

One- fourth  of  all  Forest  receipts  are  paid  direct  to  the 
local  counties  for  roads  and  schools,  an  additional  five 
per  cent  goes  to  the  State  on  account  of  school  lands  ad- 
ministered by  the  Forest  Service,  and  ten  per  cent  is  ex- 
pended by  the  Forest  Service  for  roads.  The  total  sum 
accruing  to  the  roads  and  schools  of  the  State,  exclusive 
of  the  Federal  Aid  Road  Act,  is  about  $100,000  per  year. 

The  National  Forests  of  the  Southwest  are  self-sup- 
porting, and  in  fact  turn  in  a  handsome  profit,  which  is 
steadily  increasing  with  increased  development.  It  costs 
$180,000  a  year  to  protect  and  administer  the  New  Mex- 
ico Forests  and  they  turn  back  into  the  public  treasuries 
the  sum  of  $250,000  annually. 

The  National  Forests  of  New  Mexico  offer  excellent 
business  opportunities  to  stockmen  and  lumbermen  who 
are  seeking  a  location.  With  the  general  development  of 
the  State,  new  bodies  of  timber  are  becoming  marketable, 
concerning  which  the  Forest  Service  furnishes  definite 
information  to  prospective  purchasers. 

In  addition  to  the  purely  economic  resources  of  the 
New  Mexico  Forests,  they  have  a  large  and  increasing 
value  in  the  attractions  which  they  offer  to  travelers, 
sportsmen,   and  health-seekers,   and  in   their  increasing 


The  National  Forests  of  New  Mexico    325 

popularity  with  the  people  of  New  Mexico  and  adjacent 
states  as  a  location  for  summer  homes.  They  are  becom- 
ing more  and  more  the  vacation  ground  for  the  men  of 
moderate  means.  On  the  headwaters  of  the  Pecos,  for 
instance,  the  Forest  Service  has  laid  out  a  large  number 
of  summer  home  sites,  which  can  be  leased  for  ten  year 
periods  at  rentals  varying  from  $10  to  $25  per  year. 
With  the  building  material  already  on  the  ground  and 
obtainable  from  adjacent  sawmills,  $300  or  $400  will 
build  a  very  comfortable  cottage.  An  automobile  road 
brings  the  cottager  to  his  front  door.  The  Forest  Service 
telephone  line  and  near-by  post  office  connects  him  with 
civilization,  and  almost  at  his  doorstep  he  can  enjoy  ex- 
cellent trout  fishing  and  the  finest  scenery  in  the  South- 
west. These  summer  home  sites  are  being  rapidly  taken 
up,  mostly  by  the  business  men  of  the  New  Mexico  cities. 
In  the  not  far  distant  future,  it  would  be  safe  to  say  that 
many  of  the  Southwestern  Forests  will  be  dotted  with 
summer  homes  and  will  supply  health,  rest  and  recreation 
to  many  thousands  of  visitors. 

The  Datil  National  Forest 

A  huge  sweeping  circle  of  mountain  ranges  over  a  hun- 
dred miles  in  diameter,  embracing  three  million  acres  of 
grazing  ranges  and  great  bodies  of  virgin  timber  as  yet 
impenetrated  by  railways ;  a  region  full  of  wealth  and 
business  but  fuller  still  of  untouched  resources  —  this  is 
the  Datil  National  Forest. 

The  timber  stands  of  the  Datil  Forest  are  estimated 
to  contain  three  and  a  half  billion  feet  of  lumber  and  five 
million  cords  of  wood.  The  development  of  a  great 
lumber  industry  in  this  region  awaits  only  the  extension 
of  railroads. 

An  extensive  and  thriving  stock  industry  has  already 


326    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

developed,  practically  all  of  the  range  being  utilized. 
Permits  are  issued  annually  for  the  grazing  of  about 
52,000  cattle  and  horses  and  129,000  sheep.  A  few 
of  the  mountain  valleys  support  agricultural  settle- 
ments. 

An  interesting  and  potentially  important  resource  of 
the  Southwestern  Forests  is  the  heavy  crop  of  nuts  borne 
every  few  years  by  the  pinion  pines  which  grow  in  exten- 
sive stands  along  the  lower  edges  of  most  of  the  mountain 
ranges.  The  pinion  industry  is  rapidly  developing  on 
the  Datil  Forest.  In  1916  over  a  million  pounds  of  nuts, 
worth  about  $96,000  wholesale,  were  shipped  from  Mag- 
dalena.  These  nuts  were  all  gathered  from  the  hoards  of 
the  native  pack-rat.  Without  the  services  of  this  little 
animal  in  gathering  the  nuts,  the  pinion  industry  could 
not  exist.  With  a  growing  shortage  of  food,  the  pinion 
industry  will  doubtless  undergo  a  rapid  expansion  in  the 
future. 

The  Gila  National  Forest 

The  Gila  National  Forest,  administered  from  head- 
quarters at  Silver  City,  New  Mexico,  comprises  an  area  of 
1,600,000  acres  in  the  region  of  the  Mogollon,  Black,  and 
Big  Burro  Mountain  ranges,  and  includes  particularly 
valuable  resources  of  timber,  range,  and  minerals.  The 
forest  area  includes  the  headwaters  of  the  San  Francisco, 
Gila,  and  Mimbres  Rivers,  on  which  large  areas  in  both 
New  Mexico  and  Arizona  are  dependent  for  their  irri- 
gation water. 

The  high  mountain  region  known  as  "  the  Mogollons  " 
is  inaccessible  except  by  saddle  horse  and  pack  train.  It 
contains  numerous  trout  streams  which  afford  excellent 
fishing.  Thanks  to  the  efforts  of  the  local  Game  Pro- 
tective Association  in  enforcing  the  game  laws,  the  Mo- 


The  National  Forests  of  New  Mexico    327 

gollons  are  also  well  stocked  with  deer  and  wild  turkey. 
They  offer  a  real  hunting  ground  to  the  sportsman  who 
is  looking  for  a  thorough  outing. 

A  large  proportion  of  the  Gila  Forest  is  covered  with 
valuable  stands  of  timber  estimated  to  contain  over  two 
billion  board  feet  of  lumber  and  nearly  a  million  cords 
of  wood,  the  sawtimber  being  western  yellow  pine,  Doug- 
las fir  and  Engleman  spruce,  while  the  cordwood  is  largely 
juniper  and  oak.  Due  to  inadequate  transportation  fa- 
cilities a  considerable  proportion  of  the  timbered  area  is 
at  present  inaccessible.  The  forest  at  present  supplies 
the  raw  material  for  four  active  sawmills,  but  the  increas- 
ing development  of  the  region  will  make  possible  a  large 
extension  of  these  lumbering  operations  without  exceed- 
ing the  sustained  producing  capacity  of  the  forest.  Ex- 
cellent opportunities  are  offered  by  this  timber,  especially 
to  large  operators  who  are  in  a  position  to  undertake  con- 
struction of  logging  railroads. 

The  principal  present  industries  of  the  Gila  Forest  are 
mining  and  stock  raising,  the  steady  development  of 
which  has  made  the  region  well  known  as  one  of  the 
most  productive  in  the  State.  Grazing  permits  are  issued 
for  a  total  of  64,000  head  of  cattle  and  horses,  and  13,000 
head  of  sheep  and  goats  annually.  There  is  every  indi- 
cation that  the  forest  area  will  indefinitely  support  at  least 
these  numbers  of  stock. 

The  Lincoln  National  Forest 

In  southern  New  Mexico,  extending  north  and  south 
for  two  hundred  miles  between  the  valleys  of  the  Rio 
Grande  and  the  Pecos,  are  a  succession  of  high  mountain 
ranges  which  comprise  the  Lincoln  National  Forest.  Al- 
most surrounded  by  great  expanses  of  treeless  country, 
the  wooded  slopes  of  these  mountains  provide  timber  and 


328    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

give  rise  to  living  streams  on  which  the  development  of 
many  adjacent  agricultural  areas  is  dependent. 

A  more  obvious,  but  not  less  valuable  resource  of  these 
mountains  is  the  bracing  summer  climate  they  offer  to  the 
people  of  the  hot  valleys  and  plains  of  southeastern  New 
Mexico  and  western  Texas.  No  other  section  of  New 
Mexico  is  attracting  as  many  summer  visitors.  This 
summer  population  centers  mainly  in  the  resort  at  Cloud- 
croft,  in  the  Sacramentos,  to  which  a  special  chapter  is 
devoted,  and  on  the  Ruidoso,  in  the  White  Mountains. 

The  grazing  ranges  of  the  Lincoln  Forest  afford  pas- 
turage for  twenty-six  thousand  cattle  and  horses  and 
twenty-three  thousand  sheep  and  goats.  The  productiv- 
ity of  parts  of  the  lower  ranges  has  in  years  past  suffered 
severely  from  an  over-abundance  of  prairie  dogs.  In 
19 1 5  the  U.  S.  Biological  Survey  exterminated  the  dogs 
on  one  hundred  thousand  acres  of  range  in  the  Guadalupe 
Division.  As  a  result  of  this  work,  the  Guadalupe  range 
is  supporting  many  hundreds  of  additional  head  of  cattle. 

To  the  sportsman  or  naturalist,  the  most  interesting 
feature  of  the  Lincoln  Forest  is  the  small  herd  of  moun- 
tain sheep  that  survive  in  some  of  the  rugged  escarpments 
of  the  Guadalupes.  The  Forest  Rangers,  the  State  au- 
thorities, and  the  New  Mexico  Game  Protective  Associa- 
tion are  making  a  united  effort  to  enforce  the  law  protect- 
ing these  sheep,  in  the  hope  that  they  will  increase  and 
eventually  restock  the  other  ranges  of  the  State  where 
they  were  formerly  abundant. 

The  Carson  National  Forest 

Situated  in  the  extreme  north  central  part  of  New  Mex- 
ico, the  Carson  National  Forest  more  closely  resembles 
the  mountainous  regions  of  Colorado  than  those  of  New 
Mexico  and  Arizona.     The  Forest  area  lies  in  three  di- 


The  National  Forests  of  New  Mexico    329 


visions  and  is  administered  from  headquarters  at  the  his- 
toric town  of  Taos,  the  home  of  the  famous  scout  and 
pioneer,  Kit  Carson,  after  whom  the  forest  is  named. 

The  Carson  National  Forest  is  an  area  of  large  eco- 
nomic importance,  and  of  intense  and  varied  interest. 
Its  comparatively  ample  rainfall  and  heavy  winter  snows 
give  rise  to  many  streams  which  form  a  part  of  the  head- 
waters of  the  Rio  Grande  and  San  Juan  Rivers.  Its  tim- 
ber resources  are  of  considerable  magnitude,  the  total 
stand  being  estimated  as  a  billion  and  a  quarter  board  feet 
of  lumber,  and  over  seven  hundred  thousand  cords  of 
wood.  These  timber  resources  are  in  process  of  rapid 
development,  and  at  present  supply  active  sawmills  with 
the  material  for  their  operation.  Among  these  is  one  of 
the  largest  sawmills  of  the  Southwest,  which  is  operating 
in  connection  with  fifty  miles  of  especially  constructed 
railway  lines.  The  pinion  nut  industry  is  also  important 
during  nut  years. 

The  grazing  resources  of  the  Carson  Forest  are  fully 
utilized  by  the  numerous  small  Spanish-American  towns 
included  within  and  adjacent  to  the  Forest  boundary. 
About  9,000  cattle  and  horses  and  149,000  sheep  and 
goats,  in  addition  to  many  thousands  of  milk  and  work 
animals  which  are  carried  free  of  charge,  graze  on  the 
Forest  ranges. 

The  Carson  Forest  is  one  of  the  oldest  settled  regions 
in  the  United  States.  In  the  seventeenth  century  this 
was  the  frontier  where  the  northward  spreading  Spanish 
settlements  contended  with  the  nomadic  Indians  of  the 
Rockies  for  the  possession  of  the  land.  In  the  days  of 
the  "  Forty-Niners  "  one  of  the  branches  of  the  Santa  Fe 
Trail  passed  through  Taos.  Quaint  old  churches,  ancient 
orchards,  and  picturesque  walled  plazas  remain  to  this 
day  as  monuments  to  the  long  history  of  this  region. 


330    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

And  in  the  more  remote  canyons  are  to  be  found  dozens 
of  cliff  dwellings,  some  not  yet  explored  by  scientists. 

Except  for  the  neighbourhood  of  Taos,  famous  for  its 
Indian  Pueblo,  its  picturesque  Indian  festivals,  and  its 
artist  colony,  the  Carson  Forest  still  remains  largely  un- 
explored by  the  general  public.  Dozens  of  fine  trout 
streams ;  the  wonderful  Toltec  Gorge ;  the  lake  region  of 
Wheeler  Peak,  the  highest  point  in  New  Mexico ;  and  even 
the  new  automobile  road  over  Red  River  Pass  are  still 
comparatively  unknown  to  the  traveling  public.  With  the 
gradual  extension  of  good  roads,  this  region  will  take  its 
proper  place  as  one  of  the  most  interesting  in  New 
Mexico. 

The  Manzano  National  Forest 

This  Forest  comprises  eight  divisions,  aggregating  over 
a  million  acres,  located  on  the  various  mountain  ranges 
of  central  and  western  New  Mexico,  and  is  administered 
from  headquarters  at  Albuquerque.  The  best  estimates 
available  place  the  total  stand  of  timber  at  four  hundred 
and  twenty  million  board  feet  of  lumber,  mostly  western 
yellow  pine,  Douglas  fir,  white  fir,  and  Engleman  spruce, 
and  one  and  a  half  million  cords  of  pinion,  juniper  and 
oak  wood. 

The  Manzano-Sandia  Division,  lying  to  the  east  of 
the  city  of  Albuquerque,  is  topographically  distinct  from 
the  remainder  of  the  Forest  by  reason  of  an  uplift  of  the 
geological  formation  which  exposes  the  rock  strata  on  its 
western  slope  in  the  form  of  a  precipitous  escarpment  of 
about  four  thousand  feet,  a  prominent  feature  of  the 
view  from  the  city  of  Albuquerque.  The  long  eastern 
slope,  on  which  most  of  the  timber  is  located,  follows  the 
dip  of  these  strata,  thereby  causing  almost  the  entire  pre- 
cipitation of  the  mountain  range  to  drain  eastward  into 


The  National  Forests  of  New  Mexico    331 

the  Estancia  Valley.  This  valley  has  been  extensively 
settled  by  dry  farmers.  It  has  now  been  demonstrated 
that  irrigation  water  may  be  obtained  by  pumping  at 
levels  varying  from  ten  to  one  hundred  feet  below  the 
surface.  The  future  prosperity  of  the  valley  would  there- 
fore appear  to  depend  on  a  stable  and  adequate  supply 
of  underground  water,  and  it  is  certain  that  most  of  this 
water  is  derived  from  the  National  Forest  area  immedi- 
ately to  the  westward,  whose  careful  administration  ac- 
cordingly assumes  additional  importance. 

The  three  remaining  divisions  of  the  Manzano  Forest 
located  on  the  San  Pedro,  Chupadera  and  Zuni  Moun- 
tains, also  bear  valuable  stands  of  timber,  which  furnish 
material  for  large  sawmill  operations. 

The  Manzano  National  Forest  is  an  important  grazing 
region,  affording  range  for  nine  thousand  and  five  hun- 
dred head  of  cattle  and  horses,  and  98,000  head  of  sheep 
and  goats  each  year,  as  well  as  for  a  large  additional 
number  of  cattle,  horses  and  goats  grazed  free  of  charge 
by  the  settlers  and  by  Zuni  and  Navaho  Indians.  The 
forest  is  comparatively  densely  populated,  about  three 
thousand  people  being  directly  dependent  on  its  resources 
for  their  immediate  livelihood,  and  a  much  greater  num- 
ber for  fuel  and  timber  supply. 

The  Manzano  country  is  a  region  of  great  historical 
interest.  Adjacent  to  the  Sandia  and  Chupadera  Divi- 
sions are  found  the  Abo  Ruins  and  the  Gran  Ouivira  Na- 
tional Monument,  while  between  Mt.  Sedgwick  and  Zuni 
Divisions  is  Inscription  Rock,  to  which  a  special  chapter 
is  devoted. 

The  Santa  Fe  National  Forest 

In  northern  New  Mexico,  on  either  side  of  the  valley 
of  the  Rio  Grande,  lies  the  Santa  Fe  National  Forest,  em- 


332    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

bracing  a  gross  area  of  a  million  and  a  half  acres.  The 
forest  headquarters  are  at  the  historic  town  of  Santa  Fe. 

The  watersheds  of  this  forest,  supplying  important 
feeders  to  the  headwaters  of  the  Rio  Grande  and  embrac- 
ing the  headwaters  of  the  Pecos  River,  bear  a  most  impor- 
tant relation  to  the  irrigated  agricultural  regions  tribu- 
tary to  those  two  streams. 

The  timber  resources  of  the  Santa  Fe  Forest  are  only 
beginning  to  be  developed.  The  total  stand  is  estimated 
to  be  over  two  and  a  half  billion  board  feet  of  lumber  and 
half  a  million  cords  of  wood.  The  forest  supplies  mate- 
rial for  eight  active  mills.  Excellent  opportunities  are 
offered,  especially  by  the  timber  on  the  Jemez  Division,  to 
lumbermen  prepared  to  undertake  big  operations. 

The  grazing  resources  of  this  Forest  are  also  of  very 
considerable  importance.  Permits  are  issued  annually 
for  about  nine  thousand  head  of  cattle  and  horses  and 
one  hundred  and  two  thousand  head  of  sheep  and  goats. 
Most  of  these  animals  belong  to  the  settlers  of  the  adjoin- 
ing valleys.  There  is  at  present  some  excess  range,  espe- 
cially on  the  Jemez  Division,  which  offers  a  good  oppor- 
tunity for  settlers  desiring  to  enter  the  stock  business 
to  secure  grazing  privileges  under  the  Forest  Regula- 
tions. The  forage  on  the  excess  range  is  largely  bunch 
grass,  which  is  best  adapted  for  the  summer  grazing  of 
cattle  and  horses. 

While  important  for  its  economic  resources  and  water- 
shed value,  the  Santa  Fe  National  Forest  is  most  widely 
known  by  reason  of  its  Cliff  Dwellings,  historic  Fran- 
ciscan Missions  and  its  popularity  as  a  summer  resort. 
The  archaeological  interest  of  the  region  centers  largely 
in  the  cliff  dwellings  of  the  Jemez  Division,  while  its  best 
known  historical  monuments  are  found  in  the  ancient 
city  of  Santa  Fe,   formerly  the  capital  of  the  Spanish 


Photograph  by    U.  S.   National  Forest  Service. 

SANTA  FE  LAKE,  SANTA  FE  NATIONAL  FOREST. 


The  National  Forests  of  New  Mexico    333 

province  of  New  Mexico,  and  famous  in  American  his- 
tory as  the  half  way  station  of  the  Santa  Fe  Trail.  The 
present  development  of  the  recreation  resources  has  taken 
place  largely  on  the  headwaters  of  the  Pecos  River. 
Here  are  found  a  number  of  hotels  for  the  accommoda- 
tion of  tourists,  while  the  excellent  fishing  and  the  delight- 
ful climate  and  scenery  are  attracting  a  growing  colony 
of  summer  cottagers.  A  similar  area  is  being  developed 
on  Gallinas  Canyon  adjacent  to  Las  Vegas. 

The  Coronado  National  Forest 

The  Chiricahua  Division  of  the  Coronado  National 
Forest  occupies  the  summits  of  several  small  mountain 
ranges  in  the  extreme  southwest  corner  of  New  Mexico, 
and  the  southeast  corner  of  Arizona.  The  Forest  area  is 
exceptionally  rough  and  mountainous,  and  in  addition  to 
the  value  of  its  timber  to  the  large  treeless  areas  surround- 
ing the  forest,  the  protection  of  its  watersheds  is  a  vital 
factor  in  the  maintenance  of  the  underground  water  on 
which  the  valleys  of  Playas,  Animas,  San  Simon,  Sulphur 
Springs  and  San  Pedro,  mainly  in  Arizona,  are  becoming 
increasingly  dependent.  In  fact  it  has  been  demonstrated 
that  the  depth  of  the  water  table  of  at  least  one  of  these 
valleys  is  largely  in  direct  proportion  to  the  distance  from 
the  forest  watershed. 

The  Chiricahua  Forest  is  administered  with  headquar- 
ters at  Tucson,  Arizona.  The  principal  industry  at  pres- 
ent is  the  grazing  of  cattle,  which  occupy  the  Forest  range 
during  most  of  the  year. 

Chiricahua  is  the  Indian  word  for  turkey,  which  were 
formerly  abundant  in  these  mountains  but  are  now  lo- 
cally exterminated.  Many  of  the  interesting  animals  and 
birds  of  Mexico  are  found  on  the  Chiricahua,  including 
the  Paroquet,  Javelina,  and  Jaguar. 


CHAPTER  XX 

THE    BIRD    LIFE    OF    NEW    MEXICO  1 

New  Mexico  is  not  only  a  State  full  of  bird  life  —  it 
is  a  veritable  aviary.  It  is  a  bird-garden,  in  which  are 
gathered,  under  one  roof,  as  it  were,  representatives  of 
bird  life  from  the  four  corners  of  the  earth.  The  reason 
for  this  extraordinary  variety  is  not  hard  to  find.  It 
arises  from  the  fact  that  New  Mexico  embraces  so  many 
different  kinds  of  country.  Birds  of  the  arctic  tundra  — 
birds  of  the  Mexican  jungle  ;  birds  of  the  treeless  plains  — 
birds  of  the  farm  and  orchard;  birds  of  the  piney  woods 
—  birds  of  the  sage-brush ;  birds  of  the  lakes  and  rivers  — 
birds  of  the  barren  hills;  birds  of  the  ocean  and  air  — 
birds  that  burrow  underground, —  all  these,  and  more, 
find  a  congenial  home  somewhere  in  New  Mexico.  Scien- 
tists tell  us  there  are  over  three  hundred  and  twenty  bird 
species  native  to  the  State.  If  New  Mexicans  are  wise, 
they  will  not  suffer  the  destruction  of  a  single  species  of 
this  rich  heritage. 

Is  New  Mexico  a  waterless  desert  ?  Looking  down  on 
the  State,  as  it  were,  from  above,  it  is  a  little  white  bird 
which  conclusively  gives  the  lie  to  this  very  common  as- 
sumption. This  little  white  bird  is  the  arctic  ptarmigan. 
Even  the  seasoned  traveler  naturally  associates  the  ptar- 
migan with  dim  wastes  of  Alaskan  tundra, —  with  mid- 
night suns  and  caribou ;  with  the  great  white  reaches  of 
the  "  land  of  little  sticks."     But  New  Mexico  also  has 

1  For  this  chapter  I  am  indebted  to  Aldo  Leopold,  Assistant  Dis- 
trict Forester,  U.  S.  Forest  Service. 

334 


The  Bird  Life  of  New  Mexico         335 

her  land  of  little  sticks.  Ask  the  mountaineer  of  Sangre 
de  Cristo  Range,  and  he  will  take  you  there.  High  up 
on  the  naked  timberline  peaks  beside  little  snow-fed  lakes 
fringed  with  arctic  wild  flowers,  you  will  find  the  ptarmi- 
gan. Only  a  few  to  be  sure,  and  those  rigidly  protected 
by  game  laws,  and  by  rewards  offered  by  the  New  Mexico 
Game  Protective  Association  for  the  apprehension  of 
vandals  who  molest  them.  But  still  they  are  ptarmigan, — 
snow-white  in  winter  as  they  cruise  about  on  feathery 
snowshoes ;  brown-white  in  summer  as  they  make  their 
nests  among  the  lichen-covered  granite  crags.  And  with 
them  you  will  find  the  little  rabbit-eared  cony,  the 
whistling  marmot,  the  little  dwarfish  conifers,  the  scant 
grasses  and  willow  bushes,  and  all  the  proper  settings  for 
a  little  arctic  island  in  the  sky. 

In  flat  countries  a  thousand  miles  of  transitional  terri- 
tory separates  the  home  of  the  ptarmigan  from  the  pine 
woods.  In  New  Mexico  the  two  are  hardly  more  than 
a  stone's  throw  apart.  Flanking  every  mountain  range 
of  the  State  is  a  broad  belt  of  coniferous  timber,  which 
lies  mostly  within  the  National  Forests,  and  is  endowed 
with  its  own  collection  of  native  birds,  including  dozens 
of  especially  interesting  species. 

The  characteristic  bird  of  the  New  Mexico  pineries  is 
the  wild  turkey.  These  Southwestern  pineries  are,  in 
fact,  the  only  place  where  this  typically  American  bird, 
so  permanently  interwoven  with  our  national  history  and 
traditions,  is  still  to  be  found  in  sufficient  numbers  to 
afford  the  ordinary  traveler  or  vacationist  even  a  slender 
chance  of  seeing  one.  "  Turkies,"  as  Lewis  and  Clarke 
called  them,  are  scarce  enough,  even  in  New  Mexico,  but 
if  the  efforts  of  the  State's  bird-conservationists  are  suc- 
cessful they  will  remain  for  all  time  an  interesting  feature 
of  the  Southwestern  National  Forests.     A  flock  of  wild 


336    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

gobblers  is  a  splendid  sight,  and  well  worth  many  days' 
travel  to  see. 

To  the  eastern  bird-lover,  the  most  amazing  performer 
among  the  pinery  birds  is  the  little  gray  water  ousel. 
The  ousel  frequents  the  cold  gushing  trout-streams  of 
the  mountain  slopes.  He  frequents  them  literally.  He 
lives  not  by,  but  in  the  ice-cold  snow  water  of  the  Alpine 
torrents.  He  does  not  even  swim  —  but  walks  among 
the  dripping  boulders,  quite  indifferent  as  to  whether  his 
circumambient  medium  is  the  water  or  the  air.  But  the 
final  touch  to  the  astonishment  of  his  beholder  comes  when 
he  flies  "  spat !  "  into  the  very  face  of  a  roaring  water- 
fall and  disappears  therein.  Only  the  initiated  knows 
that  he  has  gone  to  his  nest,  which  is  often  built  on  the 
cold  wet  rocks  behind  the  wall  of  water  —  safe  from 
every  preying  thing  that  creeps  or  swims  or  flies. 

Hundreds  of  other  birds  likewise  frequent  the  pineries. 
Faintly  cheeping  flocks  of  pygmy  nuthatches  animate  the 
pine  boughs ;  gaily  painted  hummingbirds  dart  like  little 
meteors  above  the  flowered  carpet  of  the  woods;  band- 
tailed  pigeons  boom  and  coo  in  the  tops  of  the  towering 
fir-trees,  and  maybe  a  splendid  blue-grouse  will  thunder 
out  from  under  the  stroller's  feet  and  disappear  into  the 
quivering  curtain  of  aspen  leaves.  And  in  the  evening 
the  ringing  melody  of  the  thrush  echoes  from  out  some 
still  abyss  against  the  hushed  thickets  of  the  mountain 
sides. 

Below  the  pineries  lies  an  ocean  of  rolling  cedar-cov- 
ered foothills.  Autumn  is  the  time  to  see  the  foothills 
of  New  Mexico,  and  the  pinion  jay  is  the  bird  whose 
memory  is  indelibly  associated  in  the  mind  of  the  bird- 
lover  with  the  foothill  country.  Great  flocks  of  these 
rollicking  fellows  wander  about  among  the  spicy  groves 
of  cedar  and  pinion,  rending  the  crisp  autumn  air  with 


The  Bird  Life  of  New  Mexico         337 

their  merry  cries,  and  conducting  themselves  for  all  the 
world  like  a  flock  of  shouting  schoolboys  out  on  a  nutting 
tour  of  a  sunny  Saturday  afternoon.  Pihoncros  they  are 
called  by  the  native  people.  The  name  has  a  ring  to  it 
which  is  singularly  appropriate.  Spanish  names  possess 
this  quality  of  musical  description  to  an  extraordinary  de- 
gree —  witness  also  the  cadomices,  or  little  blue-gray 
foothill  quail,  known  to  science  as  the  scaled  partridge. 
The  word  has  no  particular  literal  meaning,  but  it  some- 
how fits  these  swift- footed  little  fellows  as  they  dart  to 
cover  among  the  sage  bushes  with  raised  crests  and  soft 
whistles  of  alarm. 

Fanning  out  from  the  foothills  in  great  graceful  sweeps, 
measured  not  in  miles,  but  in  scores  of  miles,  lie  the  New 
Mexico  plains.  Even  these  great  reaches  of  treeless 
country  have  their  distinctive  birds, —  mostly  quiet  little 
sparrows,  threshers,  and  larks  that  flit  noiselessly  from 
one  little  clump  of  snakeweed  or  pingue  to  another.  The 
most  characteristic  bird  of  the  plains  is  the  burrowing  owl. 
He  often  inhabits  the  prairie-dog  towns,  where  he  sits 
solemnly  blinking  at  the  mouth  of  his  burrow.  The  real 
relation,  or  lack  of  relation,  between  this  little  owl  and 
his  prairie-dog  neighbours  presents  an  interesting  field  for 
ornithological  study  which  has  by  no  means  been  ex- 
hausted. 

The  nearly  birdless  plains  are  a  fitting  interlude  to  pre- 
pare the  traveler  for  that  real  paradise  of  birds  —  the 
river  valley.  Flanked  by  miles  of  treeless  mesas,  these 
valleys  are  like  ribbons  of  oasis,  threading  the  State  in 
every  direction,  and  crowded  with  birds  of  a  hundred 
varieties.  In  the  spring  the  grassy  vegas  ring  with 
meadowlark  music.  Along  the  edges  of  the  cotton  wood 
bosque  flash  red  and  yellow  tanagers,  bright  blue  gros- 
beaks, and  long-tailed  magpies  resplendent  in  black  and 


338    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

white.  Noisy  chats  scold  from  the  willow  thickets,  and 
in  the  hedgerow  and  orchard  the  western  mockingbird 
sings  all  day  and  all  night.  Sleek  waterfowl  splash  and 
play  on  every  pond,  and  swift  winged  doves  dart  in  and 
out  of  the  gnarled  old  cotton  woods  that  line  the  roadside 
and  the  banks  of  the  irrigation  ditches.  In  the  valleys  of 
the  southern  part  of  the  State  the  traveler  also  finds  many 
unfamiliar  species  that  belong  to  Old  Mexico.  The  rose- 
coloured  pyrrhuloxia,  the  vermilion  flycatcher,  the  white- 
necked  raven,  the  white-winged  dove,  the  diminutive 
ground  dove,  and  a  dozen  other  semi-tropical  species  fur- 
nish a  real  treat  to  the  bird-lover.  And  occasionally,  in 
the  southern  foothills,  the  persistent  observer  may  even 
find  several  species  of  parrots  and  paroquets,  so  rare  that 
the  scientists  are  not  yet  ready  to  recognize  them  as  duly 
authenticated  visitors  on  our  side  of  the  international 
boundary.  But  they  are  there,  and  who  knows  how  many 
other  species  not  yet  scientifically  recorded?  It  is  a  rich 
field  for  the  ornithologist  —  this  border  country  —  and 
truly  thrilling  discoveries  are  yet  to  be  made  in  it. 

New  Mexico  is  one  of  the  few  Western  States  which 
has  awakened  to  the  interest  and  value  of  her  bird  life. 
National  Bird  Refuges  have  been  established  on  the 
waters  impounded  by  the  Elephant  Butte  Dam  and  the 
Carlsbad  Dam,  and  the  New  Mexico  Game  Protective 
Association  is  now  campaigning  for  the  establishment  of 
a  third  Refuge  at  Stinking  Lake,  which  is  one  of  the  most 
wonderful  breeding  grounds  for  waterfowl  in  the  whole 
West.  The  bird-lovers  and  real  sportsmen  of  New  Mex- 
ico are  making  a  really  earnest  effort  to  prevent  the  de- 
struction of  the  wonderful  variety  of  wild  life  with  which 
nature  has  endowed  their  State.  They  have  begun  by 
eliminating  partisan  politics  from  their  state  game  de- 
partment, which  has  resulted  in  a  much  better  enforce- 


The  Bird  Life  of  New  Mexico         339 

ment  of  the  game  laws.  Forging  ahead  under  their  slo- 
gan, "  Remember  the  Buffalo,"  the  outlook  for  the  actual 
practice  of  wild  life  conservation  in  the  State  is  a  par- 
ticularly favourable  one. 


CHAPTER  XXI 

THE    FLORA    OF    NEW    MEXICO 

To  the  technical  botanist  or  the  ordinary  lover  of  flow- 
ers New  Mexico  is  one  of  the  most  desirable  States  in 
the  Union.  For,  while  it  is  doubtful  whether  any  other 
State,  except  California,  and  possibly  Colorado  and  Texas, 
could  present  so  large  a  list  of  interesting  flora  as  New 
Mexico,  it  is  still  not  half  explored,  and  it  is  not  im- 
probable that  the  future  will  see  its  catalogue  considerably 
extended. 

Already  about  seven  hundred  varieties  have  been  found, 
and  scores  of  these  are  not  only  indigenous  to  the  State, 
but  were  first  found  here,  and  many  of  them  apparently 
do  not  exist  elsewhere.  The  reason  for  this  great  va- 
riety is  readily  apparent  to  any  one  conversant  with  the 
topographical  diversity  of  the  State.  Here  are  high 
mountain  peaks,  barren  desert  plains,  rolling  foothills, 
"  staked  plains,"  vast  sand-mounds,  well-watered  valleys, 
elevated  plateaus,  the  Jornada  del  muerto  —  a  veritable 
desert  of  death  —  and  all  the  richly  clad  mountain  slopes 
where  trees,  plants,  and  flowers  abound  in  luxuriance  and 
variety. 

It  should  be  interesting  even  to  the  general  reader  to 
follow  what  might  be  called  the  botanical  history  of  New 
Mexico.  The  first  known  collector  to  visit  the  State  in  his 
professional  capacity  is  one  whose  name  is  attached  to 
many  species  peculiar  to  the  West.  It  was  Dr.  A.  Wis- 
lizenus,  who  accompanied  Doniphan's  expedition  in 
1846-7,  and  entered  the  region   from  Kansas,  striking 

340 


The  Guardian  of  the  Desert. 

m   a  Painting  by    JVallace  L.  DeWolj. 


,:~  hi- 


Wi..t>i>viij,n»}- 


The  Flora  of  New  Mexico 341 

Wagon  Mound,  Pecos,  Santa  Fe,  Albuquerque  and  down 
the  Rio  Grande,  over  the  Jornada  del  Maerto  to  the  upper 
crossing  of  the  Rio  Grande. 

In  1849  and  I85i-2  Charles  Wright,  at  the  suggestion 
of  Dr.  Asa  Gray,  came  to  the  Southwest  to  make  botanical 
collections  and  spent  some  time  in  the  State.  He  collected 
along  the  lower  Rio  Grande,  at  Mimbres  and  around 
Santa  Rita,  and  also  in  the  Organ  Mountains. 

In  1853  an  expedition  was  sent  out  by  the  federal  gov- 
ernment under  Lieut.  Whipple,  for  the  purpose  of  finding 
a  railroad  route  from  the  Middle  West  through  to  Cali- 
fornia. The  botanist  of  the  expedition  was  Dr.  J.  M.  Big- 
low.  He  did  the  major  part  of  his  work,  however,  east 
of  Albuquerque,  it  being  too  late  for  successful  botanizing 
when  he  passed  further  west. 

Again,  in  1854,  another  railroad-route-exploring  expe- 
dition (Pope's),  collected  plants  and  flowers,  in  the  ex- 
treme south,  above  El  Paso,  and  still  another  (Parke's), 
which  entered  by  way  of  Santa  Rita  and  went  down  the 
Rio  Mimbres  to  the  Rio  Grande  and  thus  to  El  Paso. 

It  is  rather  remarkable  that  New  Mexico  should  have 
so  large  a  flora,  for  the  State  is  relatively  high  above  sea 
level,  its  lowest  valleys  being  more  than  3500  feet  in  alti- 
tude, while  some  of  the  mountains  soar  into  the  peerless 
sky  far  above  timber  line.  These  elevations,  combined 
with  the  inland  location  of  the  country,  produce  climatic 
conditions  of  atmospheric  humidity,  variations  and  ex- 
tremes of  temperature,  and  an  intensity  of  light  that  are 
especially  severe  on  all  plant  life.  Only  those  plants 
can  live  that  are  peculiarly  adapted  to  these  conditions. 
The  lack  of  moisture  in  the  air  is  particularly  hard  upon 
plants  that  are  accustomed  to  a  humid  atmosphere,  since 
it  increases  the  evaporation  from  their  leaf  surfaces  to 
such  a  degree  that  they  find  they  are  able  with  great  diffi- 


342     New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

culty  to  get  enough  water  from  the  ground  to  replace  that 
lost  by  evaporation. 

The  changes  of  temperature,  too,  both  diurnal  and  an- 
nual, are  extreme.  The  altitude  renders  the  atmosphere 
thin  and  the  lack  of  moisture  heightens  this  effect.  The 
heat  of  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun  shining  through  this  thin 
and  dry  atmosphere,  is  intense,  yet  as  soon  as  the  sun 
goes  down  the  drop  in  temperature  is  sudden,  great  and 
severe.  The  growing  season,  therefore,  in  New  Mexico 
is  very  long,  and  the  total  quantity  of  heat  received  during 
the  season  much  larger  than  the  average.  This  tends  to 
produce  rapid  growth  in  plants  and  trees,  but  shortens 
their  lives. 

Sunlight  is  essential  to  the  life  of  a  plant  and  it  must 
have  it  in  proper  quantity.  Yet  plants  differ  as  much  in 
the  amount  of  light  they  need  as  in  their  demands  for 
water.  Some  species  require  strong  light,  others  only  a 
small  amount,  while  others  thrive  best  when  they  get  a 
quantity  of  shade.  It  is  also  a  fact  that  some  trees, 
while  young,  demand  shade,  yet  when  they  mature  they 
demand  an  abundance  of  light.  Hence  it  will  be  seen 
that  in  New  Mexico  the  light  conditions  —  except,  per- 
haps, on  the  slopes  of  the  high  mountains  where  the 
dense  coniferous  forests  exist  —  are  extremely  severe,  for 
the  direct  sunlight  is  exceptionally  intense,  and  the  re- 
flected light  very  strong. 

In  view  of  these  conditions,  therefore,  the  wonder  is 
not  that  there  are  so  few  varieties  of  plant  life  that  thrive 
in  New  Mexico,  but  that  there  are  so  many  that  have 
adapted  themselves  to  such  an  inhospitable  environment. 

It  is  well  to  set  forth  these  climatic  conditions  in  clear 
and  definite  statement  that  their  influences  upon  the 
State's  botanical  resources  may  not  be  forgotten, 
i.  Very  dry  atmosphere;  2.  Extreme  daily  variation  in 


The  Flora  of  New  Mexico 343 

temperature;  3.  Late  spring  frost;  4.  Very  high  sum- 
mer temperature;  5.  Very  intense  light.  In  addition  it 
must  be  recalled  that  upon  many  of  the  plateaus  there  is 
a  sparcity  of  soil  and  here  and  there  relatively  large  quan- 
tities of  alkali. 

To  those  who  wish  to  study  the  botany  of  New  Mexico 
and  its  various  light  zones  can  be  commended  highly  a 
small  report  issued  by  the  Bureau  of  Biological  Survey, 
entitled  Life  Zones  and  Crop  Zones  of  New  Mexico, 
by  Vernon  Bailey.  It  is  full  of  information  and  readable 
as  a  novel,  and  gives  definite  knowledge  of  the  fauna  of 
the  State  as  well  as  the  tree  and  plant  life. 

There  are  certain  regions  in  New  Mexico  that  have 
been  botanically  studied  and  explored  with  unusual  care 
and  from  this  fact  it  might  be  assumed  that  the  whole 
State  is  known  equally  well,  but  Paul  C.  Stanley  in  his 
Localities  of  Plants  from  New  Mexico  thus  writes  on 
this  matter : 

Two  localities  in  New  Mexico  are  remarkable  for  the  number  of 
plants  described  from  them,  Santa  Fe  and  Santa  Rita.  The  reason 
for  this  is  the  fact  that  the  first  extensive  collections  made  in  the 
Southwest  were  made  largely  at  these  two  places.  Although  there 
is  hardly  a  county  in  New  Mexico  in  which  a  few  new  species  have 
not  been  found,  it  is  not  to  be  inferred  that  the  flora  of  the  Terri- 
tory has  been  thoroughly  explored  and  that  new  plants  are  no  longer 
to  be  discovered  within  its  boundaries.  This  is  far  from  being  the 
case.  With  but  few  exceptions  the  areas  that  have  been  best  ex- 
plored are  those  most  easily  reached  by  railroad.  In  the  more  re- 
mote parts  of  New  Mexico  there  are  hundreds  of  square  miles  that 
have  never  been  visited  by  any  botanical  collector.  When  explored, 
these  will  reveal  dozens  of  new  plants  to  swell  our  list.  Even  in 
the  best-known  regions  new  plants  are  continually  being  found. 
More  collecting  has  been  done  in  the  Organ  Mountains  than  in  any 
other  part  of  the  Territory,  yet  a  botanist  seldom  visits  them,  limited 
in  extent  as  they  are,  without  finding  something  new  to  their  flora. 

Elsewhere  this  same  writer,  in  conjunction  with  E.  O. 
Wooton,  enlarges  upon  the  fact  as  follows : 


344    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

As  a  result  of  our  study  of  this  rather  ample  material  we  have 
compiled  a  list  of  the  plants  of  the  State,  which  shows  that  the  flora 
of  New  Mexico  will  compare  favourably  in  number  of  species  with 
that  of  any  of  the  Western  States.  It  is  to  be  remembered  that  the 
plant  life  of  the  State  is  still  imperfectly  known,  except  in  certain 
limited  localities.  Even  in  those  areas  which  have  been  fully  in- 
vestigated unknown  plants  are  often  turning  up ;  and  there  are  ex- 
tensive ranges  of  mountains  and  hills,  as  well  as  stretches  of  plains, 
where  little  or  no  collecting  has  been  done.  For  example,  the  Jemez 
Range,  one  of  the  largest  in  the  State,  has  never  been  visited  by  a 
botanist.  Fewer  things  of  interest  are  to  be  expected  there,  how- 
ever, than  in  some  of  the  regions  near  the  boundaries,  particularly 
on  the  eastern  and  southern  sides.  One  of  the  writers  in  the  summer 
of  191 1  collected  in  the  northwestern  corner  of  New  Mexico  and 
found  more  than  a  hundred  species  that  had  not  been  known  pre- 
viously from  the  State.  Equally  productive  would  be  collections 
made  along  the  southern  edge  of  New  Mexico,  especially  in  the 
Guadalupe  and  San  Luis  Mountains  and  about  the  south  end  of  the 
Sacramentos.  Along  the  western  border  there  may  be  expected 
many  Arizona  species  which  have  not  yet  been  collected  in  New 
Mexico.  When  it  is  realized  that  the  area  of  New  Mexico  is  above 
one  hundred  and  twenty  thousand  square  miles,  which  is  consider- 
ably more  than  the  combined  areas  of  New  York  and  the  New  Eng- 
land States,  and  that  the  number  of  those  who  have  collected  ex- 
tensively in  the  region  is  less  than  a  dozen,  it  is  clear  that  there 
remains  a  fertile  field  for  exploration  by  those  interested  in  taxo- 
nomic  botany.  When  new  plants  are  still  being  found  in  New  Eng- 
land, where  for  the  past  century  or  more  hundreds  of  botanists  and 
botanical  collectors  have  been  at  work,  it  is  evident  that  it  will  be 
many  years  before  any  botanist  working  in  almost  any  part  of  New 
Mexico  will  fail  to  find  plants  that  have  not  before  been  reported 
from  the  State. 

Perhaps  the  most  striking  features  in  its  botany  to 
the  stranger  who  sees  New  Mexico  for  the  first  time  is 
its  cacti.  While  there  are  nothing  like  so  many  here  as 
in  Arizona  or  California,  it  is  in  New  Mexico  that  the 
traveler  from  the  East  first  sees  them ;  hence  they  are 
impressed  upon  the  mind  as  an  individualistic  feature  of 
this  State,  and  the  conception  has  become  popular,  viz., 
that  New  Mexico  is  essentially  the  home  of  the  cactus. 
Another  popular  misconception  is  that  any  queer-looking, 


MESQUITE.  DESKRT     FLORA. 

THREE  ETCHINGS  BY  WALLACE  L.  DEWOLF. 

(See    page    394.) 


The  Flora  of  New  Mexico 345 

spine-covered  plant  growing  on  a  mesa  or  desert  is  a 
cactus. 

Already  I  have  referred  to  the  peculiar  climatic  condi- 
tions of  New  Mexico.  These  have  a  direct  bearing  upon 
the  number  and  variety  of  the  cactus  growths.  There 
are  five  genera  found,  viz.,  Opuntia,  Mamillaria,  Echino- 
cactus,  Echino-Cereus,  and  Peniocereus,  and  in  these 
there  are  known  to  exist  in  New  Mexico  among  the 
Opuntia,  28  species;  Mamillaria,  12  species;  Echinocac- 
tus,  7  species;  Echino-Cereus,  14  species;  and  Penio- 
cereus, one  specie,  making  62  varieties  in  all.  Arizona 
has  more  than  three  times  this  number,  hence  it,  rather 
than  New  Mexico,  should  be  known  as  "  the  Thorny 
State." 

While  a  popular  belief  has  sprung  up  that  a  cactus 
will  grow  anywhere  on  the  desert,  such  is  very  far  from 
the  fact.  Many  varieties  are  extremely  sensitive  to  cold, 
and  where  the  temperatures  vary  so  greatly  as  they  do 
in  New  Mexico  quite  a  number  are  unable  to  live. 

Few  Eastern  people  have  any  idea  how  large  a  part 
the  cactus  plays  in  the  food  supply  of  the  Indians  and 
the  poorer  of  the  Mexicans  of  the  Southwest.  The 
prickly  pear,  or  tuna,  has  as  many  varieties  of  fruit  as 
an  apple.  It  is  pearlike  in  shape,  and  covered  with  spines, 
hence  its  name.  He  who  would  eat  of  it  must  learn  to 
handle  it  properly :  certainly  not  "  without  gloves,'1  and 
if  "firmly"  then  when  the  spines  are  removed.  When 
the  New  Mexican  wishes  to  eat  or  cook  these  pears  they 
are  generally  impaled  upon  a  wooden  skewer,  or  other 
implement,  and  well  peeled,  the  person  doing  the  peeling, 
however,  being  very  careful  not  to  let  thumb,  fingers,  or 
hand  touch  the  unpeeled  fruit.  For  the  thorns  are  far 
worse  than  they  appear ;  and  there  are  incalculably  more 
of  them.     It  seems  incredible  that  one  even  totally  ig- 


346    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

norant  of  them  could  do  what  once  I  saw  an  Eastern 
tourist  do.  He  left  the  car  at  some  siding  where  we 
stopped  soon  after  reaching  New  Mexico,  ran  and  picked 
off  a  prickly  pear  from  its  lobe-like  leaf  of  cactus  in  his 
handkerchief.  He  was  still  removing  thorns  when  I 
bid  him  good-by  in  the  Los  Angeles  depot  two  days 
later. 

The  skin  should  be  plentifully  removed  —  there  is 
enough  of  it.  It  is  almost  like  the  rind  of  a  water- 
melon, and  only  the  inner  part  of  the  fruit  is  worth  eat- 
ing. Many  strangers  do  not  like  the  flavour  at  first,  any 
more  than  they  do  ripe  olives,  fresh  figs,  tomatoes,  casabas 
or  persimmons.  But  those  who  acquire  the  taste  are 
exceedingly  fond  of  them.  It  is  said  that  most,  if  not 
all,  of  the  edible  varieties  were  brought  from  Spain  or 
Mexico  by  the  Franciscans,  for  there  is  little  or  no  flavour, 
and  little  flesh  or  juice  in  most  of  the  native  wild  varie- 
ties. Still  the  Indians  possibly  had  learned,  in  their  sea- 
sons of  famine,  to  eat  even  these,  and  were  ready  to  en- 
joy to  the  full  the  better  varieties  wherever  they  came 
from. 

There  is  also  a  syrup  made  from  the  prickly  pear, 
called  by  the  Mexicans,  Miel  de  Tuna  —  pronounced 
mee-el  day  too-nah  —  by  boiling  down  the  crushed  pulp 
and  then  straining  out  the  seeds.  It  is  of  the  consistency 
of  honey  or  molasses,  and,  after  standing  awhile,  gradu- 
ally candies. 

The  "  cactus  candy  "  so  popular  from  New  Mexico  and 
Arizona  is  made  from  the  barrel  cactus,  or  nigger-head, 

—  Mexican,    bisnaga,   Echinocactus  wislezeni   engleman 

—  by  boiling  in  one  or  two  waters  to  take  out  the  peculiar 
vegetable  taste,  then  boiling  in  sugar  or  fruit  syrup  until 
candied. 


CHAPTER  XXII 

THE    INFLUENCE    OF    NEW    MEXICO    UPON    LITERATURE 

If  a  country  is  to  be  judged  by  the  influence  it  exer- 
cises upon  the  artistic  emotions  and  expressions  of  man, 
then,  indeed,  New  Mexico  must  rank  high.  For  few  of 
the  States  have  stimulated,  as  has  she,  so  vast  an  amount 
of  literature  of  a  high  order,  and  in  so  many  diverse 
fields,  and  been  the  inspiration  and  love  of  so  large  a 
number  of  literary  artists. 

Before  entering  more  fully  upon  the  general  sub- 
ject it  may  be  interesting  to  the  reader  to  learn  how  the 
geologic  wonders  of  New  Mexico  have  led  to  the  en- 
largement of  our  scientific  vocabulary.  Captain  Clarence 
E.  Dutton  is  the  writer,  in  his  fascinating  monograph 
published  in  the  Sixth  Annual  Report  of  the  U.  S.  Geo- 
logical Survey,  entitled  "  Mount  Taylor  of  the  Zuni 
Plateau."     He  asks : 

By  the  way,  what  is  a  Mesa?  What  is  the  special  significance  of 
this  term?  And  why  is  it  used  instead  of  good  Anglo-Saxon?  I 
will  now  answer  these  questions  by  asking  another.  Did  it  ever 
occur  to  the  reader  how  poverty-stricken  the  (I  will  not  say  the 
English  exactly,  but)  Anglo-American  language  is  in  sharp,  crisp, 
definite  topographic  terms?  English  writers  seem  to  have  gathered 
up  a  moderate  number  of  them,  but  they  got  most  of  them  from 
Scotland  within  the  past  thirty  or  forty  years.  They  are  not  a  part 
of  our  legitimate  inheritance  from  the  Mother  Country.  In  truth, 
we  have  in  this  country  some  three  or  four  words  which  are  avail- 
able for  duty  in  expressing  several  scores  of  topographic  character- 
istics. Anything  that  is  hollow  we  call  a  valley,  and  anything  that 
stands  up  above  the  surrounding  land  we  call  a  hill  or  a  mountain. 
But  the  Spanish  —  or  Mexican,  if  you  prefer  —  is  rich  in  topo- 
graphic terms  which  are  delightfully  expresjrve  and  definite.     There 

347 


348    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

is  scarcely  a  feature  of  the  land  which  repeats  itself  with  similar 
characteristics  that  has  not  a  pat  name.  And  these  terms  are 
euphonious  as  well  as  precise:  they  designate  things  objective  as 
happily  and  concisely  as  the  Saxon  designates  things  subjective. 
Therefore  we  use  them.  There  are  no  others  adapted  to  the  pur- 
pose. A  mesa  means  primarily  a  table.  Topographically  it  is  ap- 
plied to  a  broad,  flat  surface  of  high  land,  bounded  by  a  cliff,  the 
crest  of  which  looks  steeply  down  upon  the  country  below.  And 
the  Plateau  country  is  mesa,  mesa  everywhere  —  nothing  but  mesa. 
It  is  not  at  all  necessary  that  the  high  tabular  surface  should  be 
completely  encircled,  or  irregularly  but  completely  environed,  by  a 
descending  cliff.  One  side  may  be  cliff-bound,  while  the  other  dies 
away  by  a  gentle,  barely  perceptible  declivity  into  distant  lowlands. 
Still  it  is  a  mesa.  Or  a  few  miles  back  of  its  crest  line  a  second 
cliff  may  spring  up  to  a  higher  flat  beyond.  Even  so  it  is  a  mesa 
to  the  Mexican ;  a  mesa,  though  we  might  in  this  case  call  it  a 
terrace.  The  Mexican  sees  but  one  side  at  a  time,  and  if  that  an- 
swers to  the  general  conception  it  is  enough  for  him. 

To  any  student  of  the  growth  and  development  of  the 
American  branch  of  the  English  language  New  Mexico 
is  of  vast  importance.  Not  only  has  it  enriched  our  scien- 
tific vocabulary,  as  indicated  by  Captain  Dutton,  but  it  was 
what  inspired  Lummis  to  his  study  of  words  of  Spanish 
and  Mexican  origin  that  had  become  incorporated  in  our 
language.  He  has  a  chapter  in  his  book  on  Mexico  en- 
titled, The  Awakening  of  a  Nation,  which  interestingly 
discourses  upon  these  words  and  which  every  student 
should  read.  His  analysis  of  the  words  is  more  fasci- 
nating than  a  novel. 

Of  course  no  student  of  New  Mexico  can  ignore  the 
first  great  historic  work  of  Castafieda's  Narrative  of  the 
journey  of  the  great  and  first  pathfinder  Coronado. 
Cabeza  de  Vaca  had  blazed  the  way  across  the  Continent, 
though  it  is  now  asserted  by  the  highest  authorities  that 
he  never  touched  the  soil  of  what  is  now  New  Mexico. 
Marcos  de  Nizza  and  the  negro  Stephen  were  sent  by  the 
Viceroy  Mendoza  to  spy  out  the  land  and  see  if  the  re- 
ports brought  by  Cabeza  de  Vaca  might  be  relied  upon. 


Influence  Upon  Literature 349 

Stephen's  amorousness  and  arrogance  led  to  his  untimely- 
death  at  Zuni,  which  Fray  Marcos  saw  only  by  stealth. 
But  his  report  was  enough  for  Mendoza  and  the  gold- 
lustful  conquistadores,  under  Coronado.  Castaneda's 
story  of  the  Coronado  Expedition,  in  its  fine  translation  by- 
George  Parker  Winship,  published  in  the  Sixteenth  Re- 
port of  the  Bureau  of  American  Ethnology,  will  ever  be 
the  basic  stone  of  New  Mexican  history. 

Then  came  Onate,  whose  letters  Bolton  has  published 
with  elucidative  notes.  Belonging  to  this  epoch  is  one 
of  the  remarkable  books  of  all  American  literature.  I 
think  it  is  safe  to  affirm  that  New  Mexico  is  the  only  State 
in  the  American  union  that  has  its  early  settlement  and 
foundations  of  history  told  in  poetry  by  one  of  the  chief 
participants  in  the  events.  A  larger  account  of  this  book 
is  given  in  the  special  chapter,  entitled  "  The  Homeric 
Epic  of  New  Mexico." 

Of  almost  equal  importance  is  the  Memorial  of  Fray 
Alonso  de  Bcnavides,  written  in  1630,  and  translated  by 
Mrs.  Edwrard  E.  Ayer  of  Chicago,  and  annotated  by 
Frederick  Webb  Hodge,  former  Chief  of  the  Bureau  of 
Ethnology,  and  with  an  Introduction  by  Charles  F. 
Lummis. 

Only  three  hundred  copies  of  the  Translation  were  pub- 
lished, and  they  are  rare  and  valuable  enough  to  be  highly 
prized  treasures.  For  in  its  Notes,  twenty-two  in  num- 
ber, covering  from  pages  187  to  285  inclusive,  there 
is  a  vast  amount  of  condensed  and  well  digested  New 
Mexican  History  —  spelled  purposely  with  a  capital,  the 
value  of  which  no  student  can  over  estimate. 

Of  researches  made  in  original  documentary  matter  of 
New  Mexican  history  no  name  stands  higher  than  that  of 
Adolph  F.  Bandelier,  to  whom  I  owe  the  title  of  this 
volume.     I  had  the  pleasure  of  meeting  him  in  Santa  Fe 


350     New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

while  he  was  engaged  in  the  exploration  of  the  little- 
known  portions  of  the  country  and  writing  his  now  grow- 
ingly  popular  novel  The  Delight  Makers. 

Following  closely  in  the  steps  of  Bandelier,  but  with 
all  the  advantage  of  clues  and  knowledge  gained  to  work 
upon,  with  increased  interest,  which  implies  money  to 
work  and  enlarged  facilities,  Professor  Herbert  Eugene 
Bolton,  of  the  University  of  California,  is  doing  work 
of  incalculable  benefit,  and  illimitable  interest.  He  has 
delved  into  original  archives  in  Texas,  New  Mexico,  Old 
Mexico  and  Spain.  He  is  indefatigable  and  untiring,  and 
so  glowing  is  the  enthusiasm  that  burns  in  his  own  soul 
that  it  has  inspired  a  body  of  young  men  and  women 
to  help  in  the  work.  With  funds  provided  by  an  en- 
dowment by  the  "  Native  Sons  of  the  Golden  West," 
several  students  have  been  sent  to  Spain  to  dig  out  from 
the  original  letters,  reports,  documents,  and  registers,  the 
complete  history  of  matters  of  which  our  earlier  students 
knew  nothing  or  merely  had  glimpses  of. 

The  result  of  Professor  Bolton's  researches  and  those 
of  his  students  are  being  published  as  rapidly  as  possible, 
and  they  pour  floods  of  light  upon  New  Mexico,  as  well 
as  Arizonian  and  Calif ornian  history. 

There  is  a  good  deal  of  fugitive  literature  on  New 
Mexico  found  in  various  writings  of  the  early  years 
of  the  nineteenth  century,  as,  for  instance,  Zebulon  Pike's 
narrative  of  his  enforced  march  to  Santa  Fe,  and  thence 
down  the  valley  of  the  Rio  Grande  into  Mexico. 

But  of  decided  importance  is  the  valuable  report  made 
to  the  Spanish  Cortes,  then  sitting  in  Cadiz.  Under  the 
Napoleonic  influence,  King  Ferdinand  VII  was  forced 
to  grant  his  people  a  liberal  constitution  and,  under  this, 
the  Spanish  colonies  were  allowed  representation.  The 
deputy  elected  in  August,  1818,  from  New  Mexico,  was 


Influence  Upon  Literature 351 

Pedro  Bautista  Pino,  and  he  left  for  Spain  Oct.  14,  181 1. 
He  made  a  report  on  the  country  he  represented,  giving 
a  full  account  of  its  products,  its  institutions,  its  social 
life,  and  its  needs.  This  was  deemed  of  such  importance 
and  so  accurate  in  its  details  that  it  was  reprinted  in 
Mexico  twenty-seven  years  later.  There  was  another 
important  report  published  in  Puebla,  Mexico,  in  1832, 
written  by  Licenciado  Antonio  Barreiro,  who  was  the 
representative  of  the  Mexican  Government  in  New  Mex- 
ico. He  gives  breezy  and  searching  comments  on  condi- 
tions and  it  is  well  for  him,  doubtless,  that  it  was  pub- 
lished after  his  work  in  the  country  was  done  and  he 
had  left  it. 

Of  an  entirely  different  type  but  even  more  interesting 
—  if  less  instructive  —  is  a  small  volume,  not  often  seen, 
entitled  Prose  Sketches  and  Poems.  It  was  written  by 
a  young  soldier  named  Albert  Pike,  who  visited  Santa 
Fe  and  Taos,  and  gives  his  personal  experiences,  some 
poems,  and  several  romantic  stories  of  New  Mexico  life. 
It  was  published  in  Boston,  in  1834. 

Ten  years  later  came  George  W.  Kendall's  Texan- 
Santa  Fe  Expedition,  one  of  the  much  discussed,  much 
abused,  much  defended  books  of  New  Mexico.  It  re- 
lated the  story  of  the  Texan  expedition  which  was  to 
result  in  New  Mexico  joining  hands,  politically,  with 
Texas.  Instead  of  attaining  that  result  the  members  were 
marched  down  to  the  City  of  Mexico  and  treated  to  in- 
dignities, imprisonment  and  some  of  them  to  death. 

Inseparably  connected  with  the  history  of  New  Mexico 
is  the  old  Santa  Fe  trail,  and  it  was  inevitable  that  some 
one  should  put  into  literature  at  least  a  part  of  the  in- 
teresting facts  connected  with  this  noted  highway.  Be- 
fore it  was  known  as  the  Sante  Fe  trail,  however,  in  1844, 
Josiah  Gregg  had  written  his  Commerce  of  the  Prairies, 


352     New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

which  was  published  in  New  York  the  following  year. 
This  has  become  a  classic,  and  is  constantly  referred  to 
by  historians  and  writers  to-day.  Its  value  can  be  un- 
derstood when  it  is  known  that  a  reprint  of  it  was  made 
in  1905,  in  Early  Western  Travels,  edited  by  Dr.  Reuben 
Gold  Thwaites,  and  published  by  Arthur  H.  Clark  Com- 
pany, of  Cleveland,  Ohio.  It  is  interesting  also  to  note 
here  a  fact,  of  which  I  was  informed  by  Mrs.  Governor 
Bradford  L.  Prince,  viz.,  that  the  actual  writing  of  this 
book  was  done  by  John  Bigelow,  later  a  noted  American 
diplomat,  but  at  that  time  a  writer  in  the  office  of  William 
Cullen  Bryant,  on  the  New  York  Evening  Post,  who 
personally  recommended  him  for  the  work.  There  are 
scores  of  pages  which  one  would  delight  to  transfer  bod- 
ily, but  the  interested  reader  must  get  this  enchanting 
book  and  read  it  for  himself. 

One  may  well  say  the  same  thing  of  Col.  Inman's 
Santa  Fe  Trail.  It  gives  a  vivid  account  of  the  history 
of  the  development  of  commerce  with  New  Mexico,  and 
its  pictures  of  scenes  and  methods  of  travel,  etc.,  are 
graphic  and  interesting  in  the  extreme. 

While  Inman's  Santa  Fe  Trail  (a  book  which  ought  to 
be  in  every  educated  American's  library),  is  a  natural 
successor  to  Gregg's  Commerce  of  the  Prairies,  there  was 
a  deluge  of  official  literature  flooded  the  country  following 
the  American  Occupation  of  New  Mexico.  First  came 
Major  W.  H.  Emory's  Notes  of  a  Military  Reconnais- 
sance from  Fort  Leavenworth  to  San  Diego,  then  Lieut. 
J.  W.  Abert's  Report  of  the  Examination  of  New  Mex- 
ico, both  containing  interesting  pictures  and  descriptions. 
In  the  same  volume  (as  they  were  later  bound  with  these 
two),  appear  the  Journal  of  Philip  St.  George  Cooke, 
from  Santa  Fe  to  San  Diego,  and  the  Journal  of  the  ill- 
fated  Capt.  A.  R.  Johnston,  of  the  First  Dragoons,  who 


Influence  Upon  Literature 353 

lost  his  life  in  a  fight  with  the  Calif ornians  at  San 
Pasqual,  California.  These  were  all  issued  by  the  Gov- 
ernment Printing  Office  as  official  documents,  in  1848. 
Two  years  later  from  the  same  office  appeared  the  Re- 
port of  Capt.  R.  B.  Marcy's  Route  from  Ft.  Smith  to 
Santa  Fe,  and  Lieut.  J.  W.  Simpson's  Report  of  the 
Expedition  to  the  Navaho  Country. 

This  latter  work  was  of  especial  importance.  Indeed 
it  might  be  said  to  be  epoch-forming.  It  was  the  first 
book  to  call  explicit  attention  to  the  ruins  of  New  Mex- 
ico, giving  full  descriptions  of  those  of  the  Chaco  Canyon 
and  Mesa.  Indeed  it  may  well  be  termed  the  father  of 
all  literature  on  the  Cliff  and  Cave  Dwellings  of  this 
region,  and  it  is  still  eagerly  sought  and  read  by  those 
who  are  interested  in  this  fascinating  theme. 

Another  historical  work  dealing  with  the  American 
Occupation  written  at  the  time  is  John  T.  Hughes's 
Doniphan's  Expedition.  Alexander  W.  Doniphan  was 
elected  a  Colonel  by  the  volunteers  of  Missouri  who 
joined  Kearny's  "  Army  of  the  West."  A  rather  flam- 
boyant account  of  the  journey  to  Santa  Fe  is  given  and  we 
see  Gen.  Kearny  start  for  California  after  the  peace- 
able conquest  of  New  Mexico.  Before  he  went  he  or- 
dered Doniphan  to  proceed  to  Chihuahua  and  report  there 
to  Gen.  Wool,  as  soon  as  Col.  Price  had  arrived  to  relieve 
him.  In  the  meantime  Kearny  had  changed  his  mind, 
and  had  decided  to  send  Doniphan  to  chastise  the  Nava- 
hos,  which  he  did,  crossing  the  Tunicha  Mountains  in 
winter,  suffering  great  hardships,  rounding  up  the  In- 
dians and  finally  making  one  of  the  many  treaties  with 
the  Navahos  at  the  Ojo  del  Oso,  Nov.  22,  1846.  He 
then  visited  the  Zunis,  and  shortly  took  up  his  march 
to  Mexico.  The  story  is  of  decided  value  and  was  re- 
printed many  times,  finally  appearing  as  Senate  Docu- 


354    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

ment  No.  608,  issued  by  the  Government  Printing  Office 
in  1914. 

One  of  the  most  interesting  and  all-around-information 
books  on  New  Mexico,  soon  after  the  American  occupa- 
tion, is  that  entitled  El  Gringo.  There  are  two  books 
with  this  title,  one  being  by  Lieutenant  Wise,  of  the 
U.  S.  Navy,  and  the  other  by  W.  H.  H.  Davis.  The 
former  one  refers  mainly  to  California  and  the  journey 
thither  by  water.  The  latter  is  the  one  here  referred 
to.  It  is  rather  a  rare  volume,  and  was  published  in  New 
York,  by  the  Harpers,  in  1857. 

It  gives  a  vivid  and  personal  account  of  the  ride  over 
the  Old  Santa  Fe  trail  by  stage  from  Independence,  Mo., 
when  the  rate  was  $150.00  per  passenger,  including  board 
(such  as  it  was)  and  transportation  of  forty  pounds  of 
personal  baggage.  The  mail  was  then  carried  monthly. 
This  was  in  November,  1853.  While  not  as  picturesque 
and  humoresque  a  story  as  Mark  Twain's  later  ride  on  the 
Overland  Stage  to  Nevada,  it  is  useful  as  a  true  picture 
of  the  daily  experiences  of  at  least  one  set  of  travelers. 
There  were  the  usual  breakdown,  scares  of  Indians, 
storms,  agreeable  and  disagreeable  features.  Then  fol- 
low chapters  on  the  History  of  New  Mexico,  fairly  full 
and  reliable  in  the  then  state  of  our  knowledge;  the 
Pueblo  Indians ;  Santa  Fe  and  the  manners  and  customs 
of  the  people,  all  of  which  records  are  as  valuable  his- 
torically as  they  are  interesting. 

Davis  later,  at  Doylestown,  Pa.,  in  1869,  published 
The  Spanish  Conquest  of  Nezv  Mexico.  This  may  well 
be  termed  the  first  historical  work  dealing  with  the  coun- 
try, and  laid  the  foundation  for  a  subsequent  and  more 
thorough  treatment  of  the  subject. 

The  last  seventeen  chapters  of  this  book  were  mainly 
written  from  the  Spanish  records  in  the  Secretary's  office 


Influence  Upon  Literature  355 

at  Santa  Fe,  which  had  never  before  been  translated. 
These  old  manuscripts  are  complete,  and  theii  genuineness 
is  undoubted.  Their  contents  include  an  account  of  the 
great  Indian  rebellion  of  t68o,  and  the  subsequent  ef- 
forts of  the  Spaniards  to  reconquer  and  hold  the 
country. 

Three  other  writers  have  been  true  historians  (exclu- 
sive of  the  critically  useful  and  highly  valuable  work  of 
Bandelier  and  Bolton),  viz.,  L.  Bradford  Prince,  Ralph 
E.  Twitchell  and  Benjamin  M.  Read ;  all  have  written 
important  books  on  New  Mexico. 

General  Lew  Wallace  in  1878  was  appointed  Governor 
of  New  Mexico  by  President  Hayes,  and  for  over  two 
years  lived  in  the  old  Palace  in  Santa  Fe.  It  was  there, 
he  himself  relates,  that  he  wrote  the  last  three  chapters 
of  his  famous  novel  Ben  Hur.  His  wife,  Susan  E. 
Wallace,  who  traveled  considerably  throughout  the  coun- 
try when  it  was  much  less  known  than  to-day,  also 
wrote  a  series  of  letters  from  the  Palace  which  appeared 
in  various  Eastern  publications,  such  as  the  Independent, 
Atlantic  Monthly,  etc.  These  letters  were  afterwards 
gathered  together  and  published  in  book  form  under  the 
title  The  Land  of  the  Pueblos.  Historically  they  are 
of  little  value,  being  rather  misleading  than  otherwise, 
but  in  their  descriptions  there  is  a  fresh  vividness  that  is 
interesting,  and  some  letters  are  both  important  and 
valuable  as  true  pictures  of  her  own  impressions  and  ex- 
periences. 

In  1879  L.  Bradford  Prince  came  to  New  Mexico  as 
its  Chief  Justice,  appointed  by  President  Hayes.  He 
was  born  at  Flushing,  New  York,  in  1840.  Of  a 
scholarly  turn  of  mind,  he  became  much  interested  in 
the  history  of  the  new  country  to  which  he  had  come,  and, 
in  spite  of  the  immense  volume  of  work  thrust  on  his 


356    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

shoulders  in  the  courts,  he  found  time  to  become,  in  1882, 
President  of  the  New  Mexico  Historical  Society,  and  in 
1883,  t0  publish  his  Historical  Sketches  of  New  Mexico 
from  the  Earliest  Records  to  the  American  Occupation. 
He  was  later  appointed  Governor  by  President  Benjamin 
Harrison,  and  has  continued  his  historical  researches, 
publishing  in  1903,  a  pamphlet  on  The  Stone  Lions  of 
Cochiti,  in  1910,  New  Mexico's  Struggle  for  Statehood, 
in  1912,  A  Concise  History  of  New  Mexico,  and  in  1915, 
what  I  regard  as  his  most  important  work,  Spanish  Mis- 
sion Churches  in  New  Mexico.  Governor  Prince's  work 
has  been  of  decided  helpfulness  to  the  general  student  and 
he  has  done  much  to  popularize  the  history  of  New  Mex- 
ico, and  add  to  our  knowledge  about  the  old  Franciscan 
Missions,  which  are  so  much  earlier  than  those  of  Cali- 
fornia. 

In  1880-1890  the  Reverend  Horatio  Oliver  Ladd  was 
sent  to  Santa  Fe  by  one  of  the  Protestant  denominations 
to  aid  in  planting  educational  institutions.  He  traveled 
extensively  over  the  then  territory  of  New  Mexico,  be- 
came enamoured  with  it,  was  privileged  to  read  the  un- 
published, as  well  as  the  published  writings  of  Bandelier, 
and  was  thus  rendered  well  qualified  to  write  a  Story  of 
New  Mexico  when  the  D.  Lothrop  Company,  of  Boston 

—  who  were  publishing  a  series  dealing  with  all  the  States 

—  asked  him  to  do  so.  It  is  a  fairly-well  considered 
volume  of  nearly  five  hundred  pages  and  gave  to  many 
thousands  their  first  idea  of  this  fascinating  land. 

Then  charmed  and  saturated  with  the  interest  the 
Navaho  Indians  had  awakened  in  him  he  wrote  a  novel 
entitled  Chunda,  in  which  he  shows  the  effect  of  con- 
version to  Christianity  of  one  or  two  Navaho  children. 
The  book  is  entirely  conventional,  written  from  the  stand- 
point of  the   Episcopalian   missionary,   but   gives   some 


Influence  Upon  Literature 357 

fairly  accurate  pictures  of  Navaho  Indian  life,  manners, 
customs,  homes  and  their  picturesque  environment. 

Less  worthy  of  note,  and  still  deserving  mention  be- 
cause of  the  praiseworthy  intent  of  its  author,  Henry 
R.  Brinkerhoff,  an  officer  in  the  U.  S.  Army,  is  another 
novel  entitled  Nah-nee-tah,  a  Tale  of  the  Navahos,  pub- 
lished by  J.  H.  Soule  &  Co.,  of  Washington,  D.  C,  in 
1886.  The  author  evidently  —  as  stated  in  his  Preface 
—  had  ideas  of  publishing  a  carefully  prepared  scien- 
tific monograph  upon  these  nomads  of  Western  New 
Mexico.  But  he  did  not  know  the  language,  and  from  his 
own  statements  it  is  evident  he  did  not  know  how  to  go 
to  work  to  penetrate  the  natural  reserve  of  the  Navaho 
when  approached  by  strangers  who  seek  to  learn  the  in- 
nerness  of  their  lives. 

The  result  is  a  statement  which  contains  many  things 
far  removed  from  the  truth  as  revealed  by  more  success- 
ful students,  and  a  book  which,  while  evidently  written 
in  deep  sympathy  with  the  Navahos,  fails  to  give  the 
reader  any  adequate  picture  of  them. 

Of  entirely  different  character,  and  approximating  to 
the  work  of  Bandelier  in  accuracy,  and  going  beyond 
Bandelier  in  its  intimate  knowledge  of  the  living  Navaho, 
are  the  writings  of  Washington  Mathews,  also  an  army 
officer,  who  spent  several  years  at  Fort  Wingate,  N.  M., 
learned  the  language,  became  intimate  with  some  of  the 
leading  shamans,  hatalis,  or  chanters,  laboriously  wrote 
down  many  of  their  songs,  chants,  traditions  and  legends, 
and  gave  them  to  the  world  in  several  fascinating  volumes. 
His  Navaho  Legends  is  a  classic;  and  his  Night  Chant, 
published  by  the  American  Museum  of  Natural  History, 
is  a  revelation  of  aboriginal  methods  of  thought  which 
will  delight  the  real  student. 

In  the   same  category,   though   less   complete,    is   the 


358    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

work  of  Col.  James  Stevenson,  who  also  studied  the  Night 
Chant  of  the  Navahos,  and  embodied  the  results  in  a 
monograph  published  in  the  Eighth  Annual  Report  of  the 
Bureau  of  American  Ethnology. 

Undoubtedly  Col.  Stevenson's  profound  interest  was 
what  excited  the  determination  of  his  wife,  Matilda  Coxe 
Stevenson,  to  follow  his  lines  of  investigation.  For  years 
she  studied  at  the  various  pueblos  of  New  Mexico,  espe- 
cially Zia  and  Zuni,  and  in  later  years  at  Santa  Clara,  and 
other  pueblos  on  the  Rio  Grande.  I  had  the  honour 
and  privilege  of  her  friendship  and  have  chatted  many 
hours  with  her  at  her  ranch-home  not  far  from  Espariola, 
where  her  later  work  was  done.  Her  Religious  Life  of 
the  Zuni  Child,  in  which  she  vividly  and  sympathetically 
tells  of  many  peculiar  customs  connected  with  the  child 
life  of  the  Zunis,  and  her  monograph  on  the  pueblo  of 
Zia,  give  her  an  established  place  among  careful 
ethnological  students,  and  among  the  literati  of  New 
Mexico,  but  her  greatest  work  is  a  colossal  monograph  of 
over  600  folio  pages,  and  hundreds  of  illustrations,  upon 
the  Zuni,  which  takes  up  the  entire  space  of  the  Twenty- 
third  Report  of  the  Bureau  of  American  Ethnology. 

Earlier  than  the  work  either  of  Colonel  or  Mrs.  Steven- 
son was  that  of  Lieutenant  Frank  Hamilton  Cushing,  one 
of  the  most  deeply  sympathetic,  winning  and  successful 
ethnologists  of  the  American  world.  He  was  no  mere 
pedant  scientist,  probing  daintily  or  ruthlessly  into  human 
pasts  and  presents  for  their  cataloguing  and  classification, 
but  he  was  overflowing  with  red-blooded  sense  of  human 
brotherhood,  and  sought  to  understand  the  heart-motions 
of  the  people  he  enjoyed  to  study.  Among  the  most  en- 
trancing pages  of  the  literature  of  New  Mexico  must  be 
placed  his  My  Adventures  in  Zuni,  published  in  February 
to  May,  1883,  in  the  Century  Magazine.     These  articles 


Influence  Upon  Literature  359 

were  followed  by  another  series  in  the  Millstone,  during 
1884-1886,  on  Zuni  Breadstuffs,  and  two  wonderfully 
interesting  and  illuminating  monographs  in  the  Second 
and  Thirteenth  Reports  of  the  Bureau  of  American 
Ethnology,  respectively,  on  Zuni  Fetiches  and  Zuni  Crea- 
tion Myths.  These  contributions  to  New  Mexican  litera- 
ture show  the  profound  knowledge  Cushing  had  been  able 
to  obtain  of  the  operations  of  the  Zuni  mind.  At  his 
death  a  volume  of  Zuni  Folk  Talcs  was  published  which 
he  had  collected  and  edited.  This  also  adds  valuable  and 
important  knowledge  to  our  aboriginal  lore. 

Almost  equally  valuable,  though  a  little  coloured  by 
his  literary  instinct  which  demanded  that  he  make  a 
"  good  story  "  of  each  one,  is  Lummis's  collection  of 
Tiguan  folk  stories  and  legends,  entitled  The  Man  Who 
Married  the  Moon.  The  introduction  gives  a  fine  pic- 
ture of  the  scene,  as  one  of  the  old  story-tellers  gathers 
the  younger  ones  about  him. 

Earlier  than  this  book  of  Indian  Stories  are  his  Tramp 
Across  the  Continent,  which  tells  in  graphic  and  readable 
fashion  how  he  walked  from  one  ocean  to  the  other.  It 
was  on  this  trip  that  he  fell  in  love  with  New  Mexico 
and  vowed  to  return  again  to  it  and  make  it  better  known. 
Then  he  wrote  his  New  Mexico  David  and  Other  Stories, 
and  later.  The  Enchanted  Burro,  (more  stories),  and  his 
noteworthy  Land  of  Poco  Ticmpo.  His  Spanish  Pion- 
eers, too,  deals  with  the  early  history  of  New  Mexico, 
written  in  simple  and  entertaining  fashion  for  children, 
as  is  also  one  of  his  earlier  and  more  popular  books 
Some  Strange  Corners  of  our  Country.  In  his  magazine 
Out  West  he  also  gave  many  interesting  pages  to  the 
history,  the  Indians,  the  scenery  and  life  in  New  Mexico 
and  I  doubt  whether  any  author  has  done  more  to  popular- 
ize the  country  and  excite  interest  in  it  than  he. 


360     New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

His  stories  certainly  possess  the  "  local  colour "  of 
New  Mexico  to  perfection.  One  feels  the  bracing  air  of 
the  nights  and  mornings ;  the  warm  or  hot  sunshine,  with- 
out moisture  or  mugginess,  of  the  midday;  the  pellucidly 
clear  atmosphere;  the  velvet  sky  of  night,  studded  with 
brilliantly  clear  stars;  the  peculiar  shades  and  tones  of 
the  landscapes;  the  vivid  colouring  of  some  of  the  rocks; 
the  forbidding  areas  of  the  lavas ;  the  snow-crowned  pur- 
ity of  the  mountain  summits ;  the  treacherous  lurkings  of 
the  safe-looking  quicksands;  the  sleepy  flowing  of  the 
half-hidden  streams;  their  sudden  arousement  and  dan- 
gerous power  at  flood-times ;  the  picturesque  adobes  of 
the  Mexicans ;  the  interesting  three  or  more  storied  houses 
of  the  Pueblo  Indians;  the  charm  of  colour  caused  by  the 
blues,  blacks  and  reds  of  their  blankets  and  head-bands ; 
the  red  of  the  strings  of  chili  peppers  hung  on  their  white- 
washed walls ;  their  fascinating  and  complex  dances, 
with  the  weird  Katchina  headdresses ;  their  quaint  and  pa- 
tient burros  —  these  and  a  hundred  and  one  features  he 
has  permanently  "  fixed  "  with  the  chemical  alembic  of 
his  brain  and  skilful  pen.  And  not  less  surely  than  the 
observable  things  has  he  given  us  true  pictures,  portraits, 
intimate  and  reliable,  of  the  people.  The  whites  he  sel- 
dom refers  to,  except  those  Spanish  who  have  the  white 
skin  and  clear  blue  eyes.  He  is  generally  more  interested 
in  the  lowly  Mexican  and  the  Indian  —  Pueblo,  Navaho, 
and  Apache. 

Lummis  is  essentially  a  story-teller,  whether  he  learned 
the  art  from  his  preacher  father,  absorbed  it  unconsciously 
from  that  mother  whose  untimely  taking  away  he  has 
so  exquisitely  and  poetically  portrayed,  or  gained  it  from 
hearing  the  Indians  tell  their  stories  of  "  the  old,"  no 
one  can  gainsay  that  he  possesses  it  to  perfection.  Take 
his  telling  of  the  story  of  the  Enchanted  Mesa.     You 


Influence  Upon  Literature 


hear  the  Governor  make  his  proclamation  that  the  people 
must  go  down  the  next  day  to  care  for  their  fields.  You 
see  their  terraced  houses ;  the  women  washing  their  long 
black  hair  from  ollas  of  rainwater;  Katzimo,  the  ac- 
cursed, the  Enchanted  Mesa,  the  island  of  rock  a  thou- 
sand feet  high  (Lummis's  excusable  exaggeration  —  it 
seems  a  thousand,  in  reality  it  is  less  than  three  hundred)  ; 
a  Pueblo  boy  approaching  his  father  and  learning  that  he 
must  stay  home  and  care  for  his  sick  mother.  The  fol- 
lowing morning's  mental  pictures  come  easily  from  the 
graphic  descriptions:  the  procession  of  men,  women  and 
children  starting  and  climbing  down  the  gnawed-out  cleft 
of  the  mesa  side  and  down,  down,  the  pecked-out  hand- 
and  foot-holes  of  the  sandstone  column  to  the  valley  be- 
neath ;  the  careful  watching  by  the  lad,  A'-chi-te,  lest  the 
dread  Apaches  might  come  ;  then  the  coming  of  the  storm ; 
the  crashing  down  of  the  house;  Achite's  climb  down  the 
ladder ;  his  leap  across  the  swirling  torrent  at  the  base  of 
the  column ;  his  wild  run  to  his  father  eight  miles  away ; 
the  unbelievable  fall  of  the  ladder-rock ;  the  sad  return  of 
the  Acomese  to  the  foot  of  the  cliff  they  would  never 
again  climb;  and  their  heart-rending  watching  of  the  two 
crazed  women  above  who  could  not  climb  down,  and 
whom  they  were  unable  to  reach  or  succour. 

How  vivid  it  all  is!  No  wonder  Professor  Libbey 
wanted  to  climb  to  the  top  of  the  Katzimo  as  scores  of 
others  had  wished,  and  that  he  felt  disappointed  at  what 
he  found  there.  But  this  I  have  related  in  its  own  chap- 
ter to  which  the  interested  reader  is  referred. 

Let  the  following  be  an  illustration  of  one  type  of 
Lummis's  stories, —  not  a  usual  one  —  but  no  better  than 
a  score  of  others  he  has  told. 

It  has  a  more  or  less  respectable  paternity  among  the 
Scotch,    Irish,    French,    English    and    Italians.     I    have 


362    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

found  a  variant  of  this  story  current  with  all  these  peo- 
ples, and  in  their  literature,  but  in  not  one  of  them  is  it 
told  with  the  consummate  mastery  here  displayed.  It  is 
used  by  Lummis  to  illustrate  the  conservative  character 
of  business  methods  among  the  elder  population  of  New 
Mexico. 

Cristobal  Nunez  and  Transito  Baca  are  two  venerable  residents  of 
Llanito,  brothers-in-law,  and  equally  addicted  to  legitimately  ob- 
tained hiccoughs.  Having  amassed  a  few  round  pesos  by  labour 
at  a  sheep-shearing,  they  formed  a  partnership,  bought  ten  gallons 
of  whiskey  in  Santa  Fe,  and  started  over  mountainous  roads  to 
retail  it  in  outlying  plazas  from  a  small  cart.  Each  knowing  the 
other's  failing,  they  swore  a  solemn  oath  that  neither  would  give 
the  other  a  drop  during  the  trip;  and  thus  forearmed,  they  set  out. 
They  had  spent  every  cent,  save  a  nickel  which  Cristobal  had  acci- 
dentally retained. 

"  Valgame  Dios!  "  groaned  Cristobal,  after  they  had  gone  a  few 
miles,  "  but  it  is  very  long  without  to  drink.  For  the  love  of  the 
Virgin,  cuiiado,  give  me  a  little  to  me." 

"  But  how!  That  thou  not  rememberest  our  compromise?  "  asked 
the  virtuous  Transito. 

Cristobal  groaned  again,  and  rode  a  few  miles  in  silence.  Then  an 
idea  percolated  through  his  shaggy  locks  —  the  nickel  in  his  pocket. 

"  It  is  truth,  compadre,  that  we  compromised  not  to  give  us  not 
one  drop.  But  of  the  to  sell  was  nothing  said.  See !  That  I  have 
cinco  centavos.     Sell  me  a  drinklet  to  me." 

"'Sta  buenol"  said  Transito,  pocketing  the  nickel  and  pouring 
his  companion  a  small  dose.  "  The  saints  are  witnesses  that  I  kept 
my  oath.     I  give  not,  but  sell." 

Everything  takes  its  time  in  New  Mexico ;  but  in  half  an  hour  the 
inspiration  got  across  the  wagon  to  Transito. 

"  Carrambas!  How  buy  not  I  a  drinklet  tambien?  I  have  cinco 
centavos  now.  Sell-me  a  little  to  me,  compadre."  And  Cristobal 
did  so,  thereby  regaining  his  nickel. 

"  But  wait-me  a  so-little,  and  I  will  buy  a  drinklet  from  thee  also, 
that  we  may  drink  joined." 

Back  went  the  nickel  to  Transito ;  and  in  a  moment  the  two  old 
men  were  clinking  glasses  mutually,  "a  la  vuestra  salud,  compadre." 
This  seemed  more  social,  till  a  disturbing  thought  occurred  to 
Transito. 

"  Pero  hombre!  Thou  hast  had  two  drinks,  and  I  only  one.  Go, 
sell-me  to  me  another,  that  we  are  equals." 


Influence  Upon  Literature 363 

This  logic  was  not  to  be  gainsaid;  and  Cristobal  doled  out  the 
whiskey  and  resumed  the  nimble  coin.    Just  then  a  trace  broke. 

"Ill-said  horses!  And  of  ill-said  fathers  and  mothers!  That 
now  we  have  to  camp  here.     To-morrow  we  will  fix  the  harness." 

But  they  did  not  fix  it  to-morrow,  nor  the  next  day,  nor  the  next. 
They  just  stayed  in  camp  and  attended  strictly  to  business  —  which 
was  remarkably  good.  Now  Cristobal  was  a  merchant,  and  Transito 
customer ;  and  now  al  contrario.  No  one  else  came  along  to  disturb 
the  routine  of  trade,  until  the  third  day,  when  a  sheep-herder  found 
two  white-headed  men  sleeping  beside  an  empty  ten-gallon  keg.  A 
much-worn  nickel  lay  in  one  half-closed  fist,  and  the  wool-propeller 
took  it  along  for  luck. 

"And  how  to  you  went  the  journey?"  people  asked  in  Llanito. 

"  Mala  sucrte,"  sighed  Cristobal  sadly.  "  We  sold  all  our  whiskey ; 
but  some  ladron  robbed  to  us  asleep  of  all  we  had  taken  in." 

In  Lummis's  story  of  the  Penitente  Brothers  the  same 
mastery  of  telling  is  evident.  How  he  makes  you  feel 
the  creeping  sensations  of  mystery  at  the  hearing  of  the 
doleful  wail  of  the  pitcro's  pipe,  and  how  he  compels 
attention  to  the  secrecy  with  which  the  curious  must  carry 
on  his  investigations. 

Colonel  Ralph  E.  Twitchell,  the  third  of  the  quartet  of 
serious  historians  of  New  Mexico,  is  an  attorney  of  a 
strong  literary  and  historic  bent,  who  for  years  resided 
at  Las  Vegas.  He  first  wrote  a  series  of  articles  for 
the  Reports  of  the  Bar  Association  dealing  with  the  lives 
of  the  early  Territorial  Judges.  In  1909  appeared  his 
first  pretentious  historical  work  entitled :  The  History  of 
the  Military  Occupation  of  New  Mexico  from  1846  to 
1 85 1.  This  was  followed,  in  191 1  and  19 12  by  his 
Leading  Facts  of  Nezv  Mexican  History,  a  monumental 
work  in  two  volumes,  that  will  long  be  the  standard  work 
for  all  future  historians  to  draw  from.  The  volumes 
give  a  clear  outline  of  New  Mexican  history,  well  written 
and  well  digested,  together  with  a  vast  number  of  notes 
which  further  elucidate  the  text  and  enforce  the  author's 
deductions.     So  impressed  were  the  people  of  New  Mex- 


364    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

ico  with  this  stupendous  work  that  the  legislature  of  1914 
passed  an  act  authorizing  Col.  Twitchell  to  publish  The 
Spanish  Archives  of  New  Mexico,  one  volume  dealing 
with  the  vast  quantity  of  original  documents,  etc.,  in  the 
office  of  the  Surveyor  General,  and  the  second  with  the 
records  carried  from  the  territory  in  1903  and  now  in  the 
library  of  Congress  in  Washington.  With  these  volumes 
in  hand  the  student  desirous  of  consulting  the  original 
sources  of  New  Mexican  History  during  Spanish  days, 
finds  his  labour  reduced  to  a  minimum.  For  several 
years  past  Col.  Twitchell  has  resided  in  Santa  Fe,  and 
has  published  many  interesting  historic  sketches  in  Old 
Santa  Fe,  a  quarterly  magazine  of  high  class  of  which 
he  is  practically  the  founder  and  editor. 

The  fourth  of  the  historic  quartet  is  Benjamin  M. 
Read,  a  native  Spanish  New  Mexican,  whose  familiarity 
with  the  original  archives  has  enabled  him  to  make  sev- 
eral valuable  contributions  to  local  historical  knowledge. 
He  first  published  his  Synoptical  Sketch  of  the  Mexico- 
American  War,  and  followed  this  in  191 1  with  an  Illus- 
trated History  of  New  Mexico  written  in  Spanish,  the 
translation  of  which  appeared  the  following  year.  Since 
then  he  has  published  several  lesser  works  and  at  the  pres- 
ent writing  has  two  or  three  important  volumes  under 
way. 

Small  but  interesting  historic  volumes  have  also  been 
issued,  two  by  Rev.  James  H.  Defouri,  viz.,  Sketch  of  the 
Catholic  Church  in  New  Mexico,  in  1889,  and  The 
Martyrs  of  New  Mexico,  1893,  and  one  by  Archbishop 
J.  B.  Salpointe,  Soldiers  of  the  Cross,  in  1898.  The  Rev. 
Thomas  Harwood  also  has  issued  two  volumes,  New 
Mexico  Missions  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church, 
dealing  with  the  activities  of  his  church,  but  save  as  his- 
toric material,  none  of  these  really  rank  as  literature. 


Influence  Upon  Literature 365 

On  the  other  hand,  there  is  quite  a  good  deal  of  fiction 
both  in  magazines  and  books,  some  of  it  of  a  high  class, 
dealing  with  New  Mexico.  Undoubtedly  the  finest  of 
these  are  the  books  written  by  Eugene  Manlove  Rhodes, 
two  of  which  I  have  recently  read  with  unqualified  pleas- 
ure. Rhodes  was  born  in  Nebraska  in  1869,  and  his 
father  was  Hinman  Rhodes,  Colonel  of  the  28th  Illinois 
Inf.  Volunteers.  He  went  to  New  Mexico  as  a  cow- 
puncher  in  1 88 1  and  remained  there  until  1906,  except 
for  about  a  year  when  he  attended  the  University  of  the 
Pacific,  at  San  Jose,  California.  His  books  are  proof 
that  he  knows  the  business  of  bronco-busting  thoroughly, 
and  that  he  is  fully  familiar  with  that  part  of  New  Mexico 
in  which  he  toiled.  How  one  can  read  his  love  for  the 
country  in  his  vivid  and  striking  descriptions ! 

As  word  pictures  they  equal  and  surpass  almost  any- 
thing ever  written  of  the  country.  They  have  a  vividness 
of  colour  that  reminds  one  of  the  landscapes  of  Tintoretto 
or  the  sunsets  of  Turner.  His  Bransford  in  Arcadia  in- 
troduces a  cowboy  character  as  distinctly  a  creation  as  any 
of  the  characters  of  Dickens,  Thackeray  or  George  Eliot, 
who  is  gifted  with  a  quiet  yet  delicious  humour  that  keeps 
one's  risibles  ever  in  delightful  titillation.  His  West  is 
West,  published  by  the  H.  W.  Fly  Company  of  New 
York,  will  add  much  to  his  reputation.  His  stories  have 
a  strength  and  vigour  that  denote  increasing  mastery,  and 
if  one  cares  for  true  pictures,  graphically  given,  of  men 
who  live  roughly,  intensely  and  vigorously  in  the  open,  he 
will  find  in  this  author  those  qualities  that  will  impress 
and  captivate  him.  There  are  surprising  and  daring 
qualities  in  his  humour,  too,  that  are  very  amusing,  though 
at  first  some  readers  feel  annoyed  at  the  trick  played  upon 
them.  For  instance,  for  one  of  his  chapter  headings  he 
gives  us  the  following  lines : 


366    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

Oh  woman!  in  our  hours  of  ease 
Uncertain,  coy  and  hard  to  please ; 
But   seen    too   oft,    familiar   with   thy   face 
We  first  endure,  then  pity,  then  embrace! 

It  looks  all  right,  and  reads  all  right,  and  yet  we  know 
there  is  something  wrong  about  it,  and  when  that  some- 
thing dawns  upon  us,  we  are  immensely  tickled  at  the 
crafty  fraud  that  has  been  perpetrated  upon  us.  This 
spirit  permeates  the  whole  of  Mr.  Rhodes's  writing. 

Then,  too,  he  knows  his  men,  his  material,  as  only  one 
who  has  lived  with  them  year  in  and  year  out,  bunked 
with  them,  eaten,  ridden,  caroused,  worked,  suffered,  en- 
joyed with  them  under  all  conditions,  can  do.  This  gives 
his  books  a  distinctively  historic  value,  for  they  can  be 
relied  upon  as  giving  faithful  portrayals  of  a  life  that  is 
rapidly  passing. 

Of  an  entirely  different  character  in  New  Mexican 
literature  are  the  spontaneous  song-effusions  of  the  cow- 
boys. 

While  the  super-critics  may  condemn  them  and  refuse 
them  a  place  as  literature  I  would  rather  accept  the  judg- 
ment of  Professor  Barrett  Wendell  who,  in  speaking  of 
Cowboy  Songs,  collected  by  John  A.  Lomax  (published 
by  Sturgis  &  Walton  Co.,  New  York,   1916),  says: 

In  this  collection  of  American  ballads,  almost  if  not  uniquely,  it 
is  possible  to  trace  the  precise  manner  in  which  songs  and  cycles  of 
songs  —  obviously  analogous  to  those  surviving  from  older  and 
antique  times  —  have  come  into  being.  The  facts  which  are  still 
available  concerning  the  ballads  of  the  Southwest  are  such  as  should 
go  far  to  prove,  or  to  disprove,  many  of  the  theories  advanced  con- 
cerning the  laws  of  literature  as  evinced  in  the  ballads  of  the  old 
world. 

Such  learned  matter  as  this,  however,  is  not  so  surely  within  my 
province,  ...  as  is  the  other  consideration  which  made  me  feel, 
from  my  first  knowledge  of  these  ballads,  that  they  are  beyond  dis- 
pute valuable  and  important.  In  the  ballads  of  the  old  world,  it  is 
not  historical  or  philological  considerations  which  most  readers  care 


Influence  Upon  Literature  367 

for.  It  is  the  wonderful,  robust  vividness  of  their  artless  yet  su- 
premely true  utterance,  it  is  the  natural  vigour  of  their  surgent, 
unsophisticated  human  rhythm.  It  is  the  sense,  derived  one  can 
hardly  explain  how,  that  here  is  expression  straight  from  the  heart 
of  humanity;  that  here  is  something  like  the  sturdy  root  from  which 
the  finer,  though  not  always  more  lovely,  flowers  of  polite  literature 
have  sprung.  At  times  when  we  yearn  for  polite  grace,  ballads  may 
seem  rude;  at  times  when  polite  grace  seems  tedious,  sophisticated, 
corrupt,  or  mendacious,  their  very  rudeness  refreshes  us  with  a  new 
sense  of  brimming  life. 

I  should  much  like  to  quote  some  of  these  songs,  but 
the  limits  of  space  sternly  forbid. 

Another  feature  of  New  Mexican  literature  must  not 
be  overlooked.  We  have  considered  the  songs  of  the 
cowboy.  These  are  of  American  origin.  But  there  is 
a  vast  treasure  of  folk-lore  songs  of  Mexican  origin,  con- 
taining a  wealth  of  allusions  to  love  and  family,  social 
customs  and  the  like,  that  is  known  only  to  the  native. 
Few  Americans  have  studied  in  this  field ;  few  have  known 
there  was  such  a  field.  Lummis,  however,  has  not  ig- 
nored it,  and  in  his  Land  of  Poco  Ticmpo  he  has  devoted 
a  chapter  to  the  subject,  with  a  luminous  Introduction, 
and  a  number  of  the  songs,  both  tunes  and  words.  In 
this  he  has  done  excellent  service,  for  conditions  are 
rapidly  changing  in  New  Mexico,  and  another  decade  or 
two  will  hear  the  last  of  most  of  these  songs. 

How  often  have  I  enjoyed  these  songs,  even  when  I 
did  not  completely  understand  the  words,  at  weddings, 
at  night  by  the  quiet  hearth  of  a  paisano,  or  by  the  camp- 
fire  of  a  sheep-herder.  Yet  few  of  the  singers  were 
sweet-voiced.  As  Lummis  quaintly  expresses  it :  "  The 
paisano  sings  in  palpable  doubt  of  his  own  voice.   ..." 

The  accompanying  photograph  is  of  a  New  Mexican 
"  Vocalist,"  who  sang  a  dozen  or  more  songs  at  a  native 
wedding  I  had  the  pleasure  of  attending.     He  was  ac- 


368    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

companied  with  the  guitar  and  violin,  the  latter  being 
played  by  a  blind  man.  In  piercing,  straining,  high- 
pitched  falsetto,  fiercely  rolling  his  r's,  but  letting  his 
words  slip  and  slide  hither  and  thither  as  he  willed,  his 
songs  still  had  a  vigour,  a  verve,  and  a  point  that  won  him 
vociferous  applause. 

As  late  as  1917  a  volume  entitled  S chat-Chen ;  the  His- 
tory, Traditions  and  Narratives  of  the  Qneres  Indians 
of  Laguna  and  Acoma,  was  published.  It  is  by  John  M. 
Gunn,  formerly  an  employee  of  the  Santa  Fe  railway, 
who,  in  his  cabin,  in  the  solitude  of  winter  nights,  and  un- 
der the  stars  of  the  midsummer  nights'  sky,  won  the  confi- 
dence of  the  Indians  who  told  him  their  legends,  etc.  He 
does  not  say,  in  the  book,  whether  he  has  mastered  the 
language  of  the  Queres,  though  I  am  inclined  to  the 
belief  that  he  has,  for  I  knew  Mr.  Gunn  over  twenty 
years  ago,  when  he  first  began  his  studies  with  the 
Indians. 

Among  other  stories  that  he  presents  is  an  interesting 
one  which  shows  how  the  Indians  regard  the  gods  as 
aiding  them  in  their  fights.  The  Sto-ro-ka  and  Ka-tsi-na 
warred  with  each  other;  each  using  bows  and  arrows. 
But  the  strings  of  bows  of  the  Sto-ro-ka  were  made  of 
the  fibers  of  the  soap-weed,  while  those  of  the  Ka-tsi-na 
were  of  deer  and  antelope  sinews.  As  the  battle  raged 
a  terrific  storm  of  rain  and  hail  came  upon  the  warriors. 
The  bow-strings  of  the  Ka-tsi-na  were  rendered  limp 
and  useless  by  the  rain,  while  those  of  the  Sto-ro-ka  were 
made  more  tense  and  efficient  by  the  wetting,  and  conse- 
quently the  Sto-ro-ka  won  the  battle. 

A  treaty  was  then  made  between  the  chiefs,  and  in 
order  to  preserve  it,  the  history  of  the  fight  and  the  con- 
ditions of  the  treaty  were  made  in  hieroglyphics  on  a 
smooth  sandstone  bluff  which  stands  some  eight  or  ten 


Photograph  bv   George   Wharton   James. 

A  NEW   MEXICO  "  VOCALIST. 


Influence  Upon  Literature  369 

miles  west  of  the  Jaralosa  Spring  and  about  twenty-five 
miles  northwest  of  the  Salt  Lake  of  Znni. 

If  this  story  be  true  it  is  one  of  the  most  important 
of  contributions  to  our  knowledge  of  American  Indian 
pictographs. 

A  vast  amount  of  material  on  the  Mexicans  and  In- 
dians of  New  Mexico  has  been  published  in  the  various 
church  papers  of  those  who  have  been  engaged  in  seeking 
to  convert  them  from  their  native  religious  ideas  and 
modes  of  life.  The  major  portion  of  this  material  that 
I  have  seen  is  ill-digested,  ill-informed,  inchoate  stuff 
that  was  not  worth  the  cost  of  setting  up  into  type.  Most 
of  it  is  misleading  —  possibly  not  intended  to  be  so  — 
but  written  by  half  ignorant,  self-conceited  religionists 
of  a  fanatical  turn  of  mind/ who  assumed  that  everything 
contrary  to  their  mode  of  thought  and  life,  and  especially 
of  religion,  must  necessarily  be  heathenish  and  to  be  con- 
demned. Though  myself  a  Christian  man,  and  for  years 
a  minister  of  a  Protestant  church,  I  am  compelled  to  con- 
fess that  by  far  the  major  part  of  the  so-called  mission- 
ary effort  that  I  have  observed,  unless  it  was  expended 
in  the  simplest  educational  endeavour,  was  not  only  use- 
less, but  actually  mischievous  and  evil  in  its  effect  upon 
it  objects.  It  took  away  the  simple  faith  they  had,  which 
did  ennoble  and  purify  their  lives,  made  them  chaste,  in- 
dustrious, good  fathers,  honest,  truthful  and  helpful  to 
each  other  (I  am  speaking  now  of  the  Indians),  and  in- 
stead made  them  cynical,  disbelievers,  sycophants  for 
the  material  good  that  came  to  them  with  their  acquies- 
cence in  the  belief  of  the  missionaries,  liars,  unreliable, 
and  treacherous  to  their  kin. 

One  of  the  better  class  of  the  missionaries,  however, 
whom  I  met  in  the  early  days,  was  the  Reverend  John 
Menaul.     He  was  then  the  Presbyterian  missionary  at 


370    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

Laguna,  had  studied  the  Keres  tongue,  until  he  could 
both  speak  and  write  it,  had  established  a  printing-press 
and  therefrom  issued  portions  of  the  New  Testament,  a 
hymn-book,  catechism,  etc.,  in  the  Indian  tongue. 

Though  necessarily  he  regarded  the  religious  ideas 
of  the  Pueblos  as  heathenism,  devil-worship,  and  where 
the  simple  phallicism  of  a  primitive  people  asserted  itself 
—  as  it  does  in  all  aboriginal  worship, —  obscene,  he 
did  see  some  of  the  good  points  of  their  religion. 

In  considering  the  literature  of  New  Mexico  it  would 
be  negligent  to  ignore  some  of  the  remarkable  pleadings, 
judgments  and  decisions  rendered  by  the  courts.  It  is 
not  always  that  one  may  find  "  literature  "  in  dry  legal 
tomes,  yet  many  cases  of  the  New  Mexican  archives  read 
more  fascinatingly  than  any  novel.  Take,  for  instance. 
Judge  Kirby  Benedict's  decision  in  the  case  where  cer- 
tain De  la  O  and  others  had  sued  the  Pueblo  of  Acoma 
for  six  hundred  dollars  which  they  claimed  the  Indians 
had  pledged  themselves  to  pay  for  the  return  of  the 
title  deeds  to  their  land.  With  biting  sarcasm  the  judge 
riddles  the  case  of  the  plaintiffs. 

These  quaint  and  remarkable  decisions  have  been  pre- 
served by  Colonel  Twitchell  in  Old  Santa  Fe. 

One  of  the  latest  to  enter  the  field  of  New  Mexican 
literature  is  Miss  Rose  Henderson.  With  keen  poetic 
insight  and  equally  fine  powers  of  expression  she  gives, 
in  her  verse,  her  conceptions  of  the  large  and  new  coun- 
try into  which  fate  has  thrust  her. 

She  is  a  graduate  of  Drake  University,  Des  Moines, 
Iowa,  and  for  a  time  was  Literary  Editor,  then  Dramatic 
Editor,  and  finally,  for  three  years,  Associate  Editor  of 
the  Register  and  Leader  of  that  city.  Then  she  went 
to  New  York  as  literary  critic  of  the  Evening  Post  of  the 
metropolis,  at  the  same  time  writing  for  the  magazines 


Influence  Upon  Literature  371 

and  the  most  representative  of  Eastern  newspapers. 
Came  the  illness  of  her  sister  and  it  was  this  that  called 
her  to  New  Mexico,  where  she  joined  the  faculty  of  the 
State  Normal  School,  at  Silver  City,  in  the  summer  of 
1916. 

Here  are   two   of   her   purely   New   Mexican   poems. 
I  wish  I  might  quote  more : 

THE  BORDER 

Stretches  of  yellow,  glaring  sand, 
Gray  dust  smarting  with  alkali, 
Mesquite  huddled  on  either  hand, 
And  a  beaming,  sun-drenched  sky. 

Creak  of  leather  and  clank  of  steel, 
Khaki  village  and  sun-burned  men, 
Rising  clouds  when  the  horses  wheel 
Back  to  the  camp  again. 

Mess  and  gossip  and  drill  and  rest, 
Night  and  the  white  stars  thickly  sown, 
Moonrise  over  the  ragged  crest, 
And  the  coyote's  dreary  moan. 

Hot  gray  rocks  where  the  lizard  runs, 
Skulking  greasers  in  haggard  bands, 
Swift  brown  horsemen,  the  click  of  guns, 
And  a  splash  of  blood  on  the  sands. 

—  The  Independent. 

SPRING:  NEW  MEXICO 

Spring  crept  over  the  purple  hills, 

Over  the  yellow,  sun-baked  sands. 

No  wild  music  of  April  rills, 

But  her  hands 

Slim  and  wanton  and  softly  white, 

Swam  in  the  windy,  cloudless  night. 

Spring  danced   over  the  cactus  plains, 
Vaguely  tender  in  timid  green, 


372     New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

Veiled  in  the  sudden,  fleeting  rains 
Silver  sheen. 

No  mad  riot  of  buds,  and  yet, 
Wild  red  poppies  and  mignonette 
Flung  from  her  floating,  garland  gown, 
Fluttered  down. 

Spring  fled  out  of  the  panting  south, 
Drooping  eyelids  and  burning  mouth, 
Blown  gold  hair  and  a  robe  of  mist  — 
Desert-kissed. 

—  The  Poetry  Magazine,  Chicago. 


CHAPTER  XXIII 

THE    INFLUENCE   OF    NEW    MEXICO    UPON    ART 
THE    TAOS    SOCIETY    OF    ARTISTS 

In  the  painter's  art,  as  in  literature,  the  Southwest 
(New  Mexico)  has  contributed  to  America  of  the  high- 
est and  the  best.  In  determining  the  artistic  value  of 
an  object,  a  place,  an  environment  the  question  of  in- 
spiration is  the  chief  factor.  That  which  inspires,  stim- 
ulates, urges  the  artist  to  high  and  noble  endeavour,  which 
furnishes  his  imagination,  supplies  his  dream  with  tan- 
gible materials,  is  a  priceless  treasure,  not  only  to  him 
personally,  but  to  the  nation  at  large.  It  should  never  be 
forgotten  that  it  is  a  nation's  ideals,  and  the  way  they 
are  striven  after,  that  make  a  nation's  greatness.  It  is 
not  alone  the  soldier  in  the  field,  and  the  statesman  in 
the  halls  of  legislation,  that  win  fame  and  glory  for  his 
native  land.  It  has  well  been  said  that  "  an  artist  in  his 
studio,  a  writer  at  his  desk,  or  a  composer  at  his  instru- 
ment, may  struggle  for  a  national  ideal  valiantly,  and 
often  with  as  great  a  personal  sacrifice,  as  the  soldier  in 
the  trench.  But  the  spirit  of  war  —  the  willingness  to 
suffer  for  and  defend  an  ideal  —  must  be  in  them  all. 
And  it  is  this  spirit  which  counts  —  no  matter  what  form 
of  activity  it  takes  —  in  the  high  achievement  of  any  na- 
tion." 

New  Mexico  has  stimulated  the  artist  and  supplied  the 
material  for  the  achievement  of  his  high  ideal.  It  has 
given  him  subjects  native  to  our  soil,  that  are  distinctive 
and  historic,  appealing  to  the  wide  gamut  of  peculiar 

373 


374    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

American  art  expression,  and  materially  extending  it.  So 
strong  has  been  this  distinctive  inspirational  influence  that 
it  has  led  to  the  foundation  of  the  Taos  Society  of  Artists. 
In  a  former  chapter  the  artistic  conditions  and  environ- 
ment of  Taos  have  been  fully  described.  This  chapter 
gives  the  history  of  the  art  colony,  now  a  permanent  fea- 
ture of  its  daily  life. 

It  may  be  these  artists  have  not  formed,  will  not  form, 
a  "  school,"  yet  it  cannot  be  denied  that  they  have  in- 
fluenced, most  powerfully,  the  course  of  American  art. 
Whence  has  come  the  increasing  interest  in  pictures  of 
the  American  Indian?  How  has  that  interest  been  met 
and  fostered?  The  answers  to  these  and  similar  ques- 
tions cannot  ignore  the  members  of  the  Taos  Society  of 
Artists. 

Twenty-five  or  more  years  ago  J.  H.  Sharp,  who  was 
born  in  Bridgeport,  Ohio,  in  1859,  and  who  had  studied 
under  Verlat  in  Antwerp,  Jean-Paul  Laurens  and  Ben- 
jamin Constant  in  Paris,  and  was  then  the  Instructor  of 
Art  in  the  Cincinnati  Art  Museum,  wandered  into  New 
Mexico  and  happened  upon  Taos.  Its  silent,  stolid,  stal- 
wart, secretive  Indians  attracted,  allured,  intrigued  him. 
His  artistic  eye  saw  the  unnumbered  pictures  waiting  to 
be  seized  and  transcribed,  and,  though  he  did  not  fully 
realize  it  at  the  time,  this  chance  visit  was  largely  to  shape 
the  course  of  his  future  life.  Seven  years  later  Bert 
Phillips  and  E.  L.  Blumenschein,  carrying  out  a  cher- 
ished plan,  long  formulated,  of  making  a  sketching  trip 
in  a  wagon,  came  to  Taos.     As  Blumenschein  says : 

"  The  month  was  September,  and  the  fertile  valley 
a  beautiful  sight,  and  inspiration  for  those  who  ply  the 
brush  for  happiness.  The  primitive  people  of  this  out- 
of-the-way  region  were  harvesting  their  crops  by  sun- 
light and  by  moonlight.     Brown  people  they  were,  both 


Influence  of  New  Mexico  Upon  Art    375 

Mexicans  and  Indians,  happy  people  with  happy  children, 
in  a  garden  spot  protected  by  mountains, —  the  '  Blood 
of  Christ '  mountains  the  Spanish  priests  had  named 
them.  And  one  can't  tell  about  Taos  without  dwelling 
on  the  mountains  that  box  in  the  valley  on  three  sides. 
The  great  plateau  of  the  American  Southwest  runs  from 
the  west  to  the  foot  of  this  range.  There,  where  the 
creeks  spill  down  into  the  desert,  are  trees  and  earth  that 
only  need  man's  care  to  produce  all  that  man  needs, 
frijoles  and  maize.  So  the  brown  man  came  here  long 
before  the  Spaniard,  and  the  Indian  pueblo  —  that  re- 
markable community  home  —  was  built  at  the  mouth  of 
Taos  Canyon  in  the  stone  age. 

"  The  Indians  of  Taos,  pocketed  in  a  northern  corner 
of  New  Mexico,  have  resisted  all  enemies  for  these  many 
centuries  during  which  they  gradually  developed  the 
grand  little  democracy  of  the  Pueblos,  self-governing, 
self-supporting  and  self-respecting.  They  have  been  in- 
fluenced by  the  northern  plains  Indians  and  by  the  Span- 
iards, but  have  always  maintained  their  customs  and 
their  religion  even  until  now,  when  they  are  struggling 
against  the  mighty  white  race  that  threatens  to  swallow 
them  up  and  spit  them  out  again,  servants,  with  short 
hair  and  clad  in  overalls !  In  their  executive  under- 
ground councils  the  officers  elected  by  the  people  make 
rules  to  counteract  all  the  outside  influences  that  might 
destroy  their  traditions,  change  their  native  costume, 
bring  a  mixture  of  white  blood  into  the  race,  upset  the 
beautiful  nature  worship.  And  so  far  the  old  wise  men 
have  done  well.  The  monthly  dances  are  tributes  of 
thanks  to  their  great  gods  above  for  the  corn  and  the 
beans ;  the  Pueblo  blood  is  not  mixed  with  white ;  and 
more  to  our  particular  point,  the  Indian  of  Taos  wears  the 
clothes  of  an  Indian. 


376    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

"  We  had  to  write  this  little  about  the  Pueblo  inhabi- 
tants, if  only  to  counteract  the  impression  so  common 
in  our  country  that  our  Indians  are  not  quite  respectable. 

"  The  two  artists  who  stopped  at  Taos  on  their  wan- 
dering journey  found  so  much  to  admire  and  respect,  and 
were  so  deeply  moved  by  the  sights  and  life  of  this  beau- 
tiful valley,  that  they  decided  they  had  wandered  far 
enough  and  here  was  work  for  a  lifetime. 

"  Thus  began  the  Taos  art  colony,  now  so  well  known 
in  the  United  States." 

Out  of  this  "  Colony,  sprang  the  Taos  Society  of 
Artists,"  which  was  organized  in  1916  to  set  forth  the 
high  and  definite  standards  of  the  really  artistic  workers 
of  the  Colony,  by  the  upholding  of  high  artistic  ideals 
and  the  demanding  of  persistent  and  conscientious  work. 
Before  an  artist  can  be  considered  as  a  future  member  of 
the  Society  he  must  have  visited  Taos  three  years  in 
succession,  have  proven  himself  serious  in  the  painting 
of  Indian  subjects,  and  have  exhibited  in  reputable  gal- 
leries or  the  New  York  salons.  The  reasonableness  of 
these  requirements  is  readily  apparent.  Any  one  might 
come  to  Taos,  spend  a  month  or  two  in  desultory  work, 
and  return,  claiming  to  be  a  member  of  the  Taos  Colony. 
And  while  it  cannot  be  denied  that  such  an  one  might 
produce  one  or  a  dozen  of  excellent  pictures,  it  is  beyond 
even  the  power  of  genius  to  paint  that  which  he  has  not 
earnestly  studied  and  learned  to  know.  Scores  of  pic- 
tures traduce  the  Indian  because  they  were  painted  by 
those  who  were  ignorant  of  the  facts  and  psychology  of 
his  life.  The  true  artist  will  never  willingly  falsify. 
He  may  change,  alter,  re-combine,  but  it  is  all  done  that 
he  may  make  the  truths  more  alluring,  more  attractive; 
never  for  the  purpose  of  deceiving,  cheating,  or  falsify- 
ing.    And  when   even  a  recognized   artist   becomes   so 


Influence  of  New  Mexico  Upon  Art    377 

careless,  or  indifferent,  that  he  paints,  for  instance,  a 
picture  of  a  blanket-weaver  with  the  heddle  intruding 
between  the  warp  below  and  the  row  of  warp  the  weaver 
is  now  introducing,  it  becomes  necessary  to  protect  the 
public  from  the  work  of  those  who  have  not  given  them- 
selves sufficient  time  or  opportunity  properly  to  study  and 
know  their  subjects. 

The   Society   now    includes   the    following   members : 

E.  Irving  Couse,  N.  A New  York. 

Bert  G.  Phillips Taos,  N.  M. 

Ernest  L.  Blumenschein,  A.  N.  A. .  .  New  York 

J.   H.   Sharp Taos,  N.  M. 

W.  Herbert  Dunton Taos,  N.  M. 

O.  E.  Berninghaus St.  Louis 

Victor  Higgins Chicago,  111. 

Walter  Ufer Chicago,  111. 

Julius   Rolshoven Florence,    Italy. 

The  original  six  having  been  in  Taos  from  ten  to  twenty- 
five  years,  the  other  three  elected  later. 

That  these  men  have  already  given  a  new  impetus  to 
American  art  and  enriched  it  beyond  all  calculation  no 
well  informed  critic  will  deny.  The  virility  and  pro- 
phecy of  their  work  has  created  new  roads  over  which 
countless  thousands  of  followers  will  travel.  How  could 
it  have  been  otherwise? 

When  Sharp,  Phillips,  Sauerwin,  Louis  Akin,  and 
Blumenschein  began  to  send  out  their  paintings  of  this 
country  the  critics  cried  out  against  their  high  key,  their 
vivid  colour,  their  tremendous  vibrational  quality.  They 
denied  their  reality,  their  fidelity  to  nature,  their  truth. 
Yet  is  was  in  this  essential  quality  of  truth  that  their 
great  value  lay.     How  could  their  critics  know,  never 


378    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

having  seen,  or  felt,  never  having  been  moved  as  were 
the  artists?  Knowledge,  deep,  profound,  sure,  is  the 
essential  element  of  criticism,  and  he  who  is  ignorant 
and  still  dares  to  criticize  reveals  the  ignorance  of  con- 
ceit. A  reverent,  receptive  and  awaiting  attitude  should 
be  the  spirit  of  all  true  critics  when  asked  to  pass  judg- 
ment upon  that  with  which  they  are  unfamiliar.  Once, 
while  editing  an  Eastern  magazine,  there  hung  over  my 
desk  a  painting  of  the  desert,  as  true  and  real  as  that 
of  any  artist  that  ever  lived.  Technically  there  were 
faults  in  the  picture,  but  in  the  essential  quality  of  truth 
it  left  little  to  be  desired.  In  the  course  of  business  there 
came  to  the  office  a  Professor  of  Art  in  one  of  the  East- 
ern Universities.  In  time  our  conversation  drifted  to 
the  picture,  and  seeing  disapproval  in  his  eyes,  I  asked 
for  a  candid  expression  of  his  criticism.  It  came  forth 
unhesitatingly,  boldly,  positively,  to  the  effect  that  it  was 
unreal,  impossible,  untrue,  in  its  high  and  vivid  colour- 
ing. Having  wandered  for  twenty-five  or  more  years 
over  the  desert  and  knowing  the  falsity  of  this  destructive 
criticism  I  resolved  to  be  even  more  daring  than  the  critic 
—  for  had  I  not  knowledge  and  truth  on  my  side? 

I  asked  him  if  he  had  ever  been  on  the  particular  desert 
here  pictured.  "  No !  "  Had  he  seen  any  of  our  Ameri- 
can deserts?  "No."  Had  he  visited  the  African  or 
Asian  deserts?     Again  the  answer  came,  "  No." 

"  Then,"  said  I,  "  permit  me  to  say  that  I  regard  your 
criticism  as  a  piece  of  arrogant  insolence.  You  confess 
you  know  nothing  of  deserts,  having  never  seen  one  of 
them,  yet  you  dare  to  criticize  the  work  of  a  man  who 
has  given  us  as  true  and  faithful  a  desert  picture  as  any 
that  was  ever  painted." 

There  is  an  interesting  sequel  to  this  rather  personal 
story. 


Influence  of  New  Mexico  Upon  Art    379 

When  the  Fine  Arts  Palace  at  the  San  Francisco  Expo- 
sition of  19 1 5  was  opened,  as  I  entered  one  of  the  rooms, 
with  a  friend,  my  eyes  were  immediately  attracted  to  two 
paintings,  the  colour  of  which  soared  above  every  other 
picture  in  the  room.  They  out-Heroded  Herod  in  their 
vivid  intensity  of  colour.  Calling  my  friend's  attention  I 
exclaimed,  "  Desert  pictures!  "  and  walked  toward  them. 
They  were  excellent  pictures,  true,  vivid,  soulful,  but,  on 
looking  for  the  signature,  to  my  surprise,  and  also  de- 
light, I  found  them  signed  with  the  name  of  the  artistic 
critic  I  had  ventured  so  forcefully  to  rebuke. 

As  late  as  1903,  Louis  Akin  wrote  of  the  Taos  region: 
"  It  is  simply  too  good  to  leave.  It's  the  best  stuff  in 
America  and  has  scarcely  been  touched."  That  is  as  true 
to-day  as  when  he  wrote  it,  and  as  to  fear  lest  it  be  worked 
out,  "  It  can  never  be  done,"  says  Walter  Ufer,  of  Chi- 
cago, after  four  years'  work  there.  "  It  is  the  variety, 
the  depth  and  the  breadth  of  it,  rooted  in  aeons  of  time," 
he  continues,  "  which  explains  the  secret  of  its  infinite 
charm.  The  portrait  painter,  the  landscape  artist,  the 
limner  of  character,  the  genre  and  prehistoric  painter, 
every  school  and  every  temperament,  will  here  find  what 
his  heart  desires.  Such  a  world  cannot  be  created  in  a 
day,  or  a  year,  or  even  a  thousand  years.     It  takes  ages." 

Yet  these  men  missed  some  of  the  picturesque  and 
characteristic  features  of  Indian,  Spanish,  Mexican  and 
pioneer  life,  enjoyed  by  Sharp,  Phillips,  and  the  earlier 
comers. 

The  Taos  of  those  first  days  was  a  very  different  place 
from  what  it  became  later.  It  was  wild  and  woolly  of  the 
wildest  type.  A  tough  gang  of  white  cut-throats  was  in 
full  control,  gambling  dens  were  wide  open  every  day  and 
night,  Sundays  and  holidays ;  saloons  abounded  and  drink- 
ing was  the  chief  occupation  of  the  major  part  of  the 


380    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

visitors  from  the  country  round  about,  whites  as  well  as 
Mexicans,  who  came  as  often  and  as  regularly  as  pos- 
sible to  indulge  in  the  wild  license  the  place  openly  tole- 
rated, nay,  fostered  and  encouraged.  For,  to  the  con- 
scienceless scoundrels  who  ran  the  town,  drunkenness  was 
essential  to  their  business.  How  could  they  fleece,  rob, 
strip  to  the  skin  the  sheepherder,  the  cowboy,  the  farmer, 
the  miner,  unless  they  could  first  get  him  drunk?  He 
must  be  tempted  to  the  town;  the  saloon,  brothel,  dance- 
hall,  and  gambling  den  were  made  the  baits  with  which 
to  allure  him.  The  few  good  men  of  the  place  were 
forced  into  the  background  unless, —  or  until, —  their 
principles  compelled  them  to  risk  their  lives  in  their  asser- 
tion. Such  risks  were  not  uncommon,  and  they  were 
real  and  genuine,  for  shootings  were  frequent,  murders 
rife.  The  life  of  a  sheepherder  or  a  Mexican  was  no 
one's  concern.  To  go  to  the  post-office  or  drug-store 
after  dark  was  a  risk.  Dangers  from  thugs  lurked  at 
every  corner. 

Hence  there  had  to  be  some  extra  inducement  to  lead 
ordinary  Americans  to  sojourn  here  for  any  length  of 
time,  and  to  men  of  culture  and  refinement  it  seemed  im- 
possible. But  for  his  art  a  man  will  bear,  brave,  dare, 
suffer  much.  Phillips  was  a  true  artist.  Perhaps  he  was 
also  a  dreamer  and  saw  into  the  future  —  when  conditions 
should  improve  with  the  advance  of  civilization  and  a 
group  of  artists  should  make  this  their  chosen  center. 
Anyhow  he  stayed  and  painted,  making  friends  with  and 
studying  the  Indian,  greeting  the  Mexican  kindly,  and 
reveling  in  the  glory  and  exuberance  of  colour  that  Na- 
ture spilled  before  him  on  every  hand.  He  established 
his  family  in  an  old  Mexican  adobe  which  his  artistic  taste 
transformed  into  the  joy  of  his  friends  and  the  favoured 
visitor.     Here  he  has  gathered   Navaho   and   Chimayo 


Influence  of  New  Mexico  Upon  Art    381 

blankets  and  other  Indian  articles  of  great  help  to  him 
in  his  art. 

In  due  time  Blumenschein  came  back,  and  Sharp,  and 
Couse,  and  Beringhaus.  Sharp  was  fortunate  enough  to 
secure  an  old  Penitente  morada  or  church  as  his  studio. 
This  characteristic  bit  of  New  Mexico  architecture  he 
has  sanctified  by  making  it  a  temple  devoted  to  the  wor- 
ship of  Beauty  and  Truth.  Here  he  has  painted  some 
of  his  greatest  canvases.  Eleven  of  these  —  portraits  of 
famous  Indians  —  were  purchased  by  the  Government, 
and  are  now  hanging  in  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  in 
Washington.  In  1902,  Mrs.  Phoebe  Hearst  bought 
eighty  of  his  Indian  portraits  and  other  cognate  pictures 
for  the  University  of  California,  and  added  a  commission 
requiring  him  to  paint  fifteen  more  each  year  for  five 
years,  covering  all  the  most  noted  tribes. 

One  of  his  well  known  pictures  is  "  Watchful  Wait- 
ing " —  two  Taos  Indians  stalking  game.  Here  the  per- 
fect draftsmanship  of  the  artist  is  proven.  Sharp  does 
not  believe  that  the  cry  of  impressionism  or  any  of  the 
modern  shibboleths  should  be  held  to  justify  careless  or 
indifferent  drawing.  He  is  as  faithful  to  the  fundamen- 
tal principles  in  drawing,  in  that  his  human  figures  and 
faces  are  truthfully  made,  as  he  is  to  the  peculiar  bril- 
liancy and  vividness  of  the  landscape  he  so  much  enjoys. 
The  field  is  flooded  with  sunlight.  What  consummate 
art  in  the  perfection  of  both  delineations  —  human  fig- 
ures and  New  Mexico  sunlight.  The  men  are  alive,  every 
delicate  touch  of  the  brush  has  added  to  their  reality,  and 
the  trees,  the  grass,  the  hill-slopes  bathed  in  sunshine  are 
so  real  that  you  can  feel  the  warmth  and  smell  the  de- 
licious tree-scents.  One  Indian  is  nude  save  for  a  red 
breechclout,  and  he  crouchingly  kneels  behind  the  trees 
with  extended  bow  in  one  hand  and  arrow  resting  upon 


382     New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

the  taut  bow-string  in  the  other.  Expectancy  is  in  every 
muscle,  and  though  only  a  partial  side-view  of  the  face  is 
afforded,  its  tense  and  perfect  watchfulness  is  apparent. 
The  other  figure  sprawls  upon  the  ground,  head  and 
shoulders  slightly  upraised.  The  body  is  wrapped,  in 
characteristic  Taos  fashion,  in  a  white  blanket,  the  right 
shoulder  and  the  lower  part  of  the  legs  being  exposed. 
How  easy  the  pose.  How  rest  fully  confident,  yet  how  in- 
tent the  watchful  waiting. 

In  other  pictures,  however,  Sharp  shows  his  deeper 
studies  of  Indian  psychology  and  life.  None  but  one 
beloved  by  the  aborigine  could  ever  have  gained  the  in- 
sight into  their  character,  or  been  allowed  to  witness  the 
scenes  depicted.  For  instance,  one  of  his  undoubted  mas- 
terpieces is  "  The  Stoic  " —  a  large  canvas  presented  by 
him  to  the  Art  Museum  in  Santa  Fe.  Here  is  the  same 
conscientious  work  on  the  almost  nude  figure  of  an  In- 
dian, who  is  developing  and  proving  his  manhood  by 
dragging  a  number  of  heavy  rocks,  fastened  with  raw- 
hide thongs  to  sharp  steel  spikes  that  penetrate  deep  into 
the  muscles  of  his  shoulders.  An  ordinary  white  man 
might  live  a  hundred  years  with  the  Indians  and  never 
be  allowed  to  see  such  a  scene.  The  same  may  be  said 
of  his  "  Indian  Medicine  or  Black  Robe."  This  is  a 
gripping  study  to  one  who  grasps  its  deep  significance. 
An  Indian  is  seated  on  a  rude  bench  in  the  interior  of  his 
house.  Before  him  is  the  feathered  paraphernalia  of  his 
old-time  "  medicine,"  the  panacea  of  his  forefathers  for 
all  their  ills,  the  "  Way  of  the  Old  "  which  seldom  failed 
to  demonstrate  the  power  of  Those  Above  over  all  evil. 
On  the  wall  above  him,  slightly  to  the  right,  is  the  crucifix 
of  the  Franciscan,  the  brown-habited  friar,  who,  ever 
since  the  day  of  Coronado  had  vexed  the  Indian  shaman 
with  his  insistent  demand  that  none  other  should  be  wor- 


Influence  of  New  Mexico  Upon  Art    383 

shiped  save  this  Crucified  One  of  Nazareth.  The  Indian 
realizes  the  dominating  power  of  the  White  Man.  He 
feels  that  the  intruder  possesses  far  more  than  his  gods 
have  given  to  him,  and  he  remembers  the  Black  Robes' 
teaching  (in  reality  a  gray  robe,  but  he  calls  it  black), 
that  these  superior  possessions  of  power  of  the  White 
Man  are  the  gifts  of  his  God.  Yet  his  ancient  faith  is 
strong.  He  hates  to  forsake  the  religion  of  his  fore- 
fathers. 

WTho  but  a  great  artist  would  have  seen  and  known 
enough  to  seize  this  moment  of  doubt,  uncertainty,  per- 
plexity, when  the  old  is  struggling  with  the  new ;  adher- 
ence to  the  teachings  of  his  fathers,  his  pride,  grappling 
to  the  death  with  the  strong  appeal  of  the  religion  of  the 
conquering  White?  Pictures  like  this  confirm  Joseph 
Henry  Sharp's  right  to  the  title  of  a  master  painter  of 
the  Indian. 

Bert  G.  Phillips  is  a  close  comrade  of  Sharp  in  his 
devotion  to  Taos  and  his  masterly  portrayal  of  Indian 
scenes.  A  good  test  of  a  picture  is  to  live  daily  with  it. 
For  months,  each  time  I  sat  at  my  dining-table,  I  fellow- 
shiped  with  one  of  Phillips'  canvases.  Many  a  time  I 
found  myself  "brain-traveling,"  "wool-gathering," — 
reveling  on  the  hill-slopes  of  the  Taos  country,  wander- 
ing through  the  adobe-lined  streets  of  the  old  Pueblo  — 
instead  of  paying  strict  attention  to  the  occurrences  of 
the  hour;  proof  sufficient  of  Phillips'  wizardry  of  the 
brush.  The  tragedy  of  the  "  passing  race  "  is  well  pic- 
tured in  his  "  Relics  of  His  Ancestors."  Here  an  In- 
dian, partially  nude,  sits  on  the  ground  with  a  modern 
mattock  across  his  knee,  and  just  before  him  a  stone-ax, 
flint  arrow  and  spear  points  and  knives  and  several  pieces 
of  ancient  pottery.  But  it  is  his  face  that  attracts  atten- 
tion.    Here  are  set  forth  the  grief,  the  sorrow,  the  hope- 


384    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

less  despair  with  a  tinge  of  sullen  anger  that  denotes  the 
Indian's  recognition  of  his  speedy  destruction  from  the 
category  of  races.  It  is  this  that  makes  the  Indian  so 
pathetic  to  the  gentle  and  sympathizing  white.  He  knows 
that  he  is  doomed. 

Of  the  work  of  E.  Irving  Couse  little  need  be  said. 
His  paintings  are  known  everywhere,  and  his  Taos  pic- 
ture reproduced  by  the  Santa  Fe  on  their  calendar  for 
19 18  has  made  him  known  in  scores  of  thousands  of 
homes,  stores,  offices  and  shops.  His  "  Vision  of  the 
Past  "  was  awarded  the  Altman  prize  of  $500  by  the  Na- 
tional Academy  of  Design  in  19 16,  and  prior  to  this  his 
genius  had  been  rewarded  by  election  to  membership  in 
the  National  Academy.  He  has  converted  an  old  convent 
at  Taos  into  a  fascinating  home  and  studio,  where  he 
gazes  alike  on  mountains  and  valley.  Here  he  paints  in 
summer,  while  he  generally  winters  in  New  York  City. 

Ernest  L.  Blumenschein,  who  was  one  of  the  earliest 
resident  members  of  the  Society,  has  already  won  his 
high  laurels.  Recently  (in  1917)  he  received  the  Chi- 
cago Art  Institute  cash  award  of  $1,000,  and  many  other 
honours  have  been  conferred  upon  him.  He,  like  the 
others  named,  is  a  master  draftsman,  skilled  in  the  fun- 
damental technique  of  his  art,  depending  upon  no  adven- 
titious aid  for  his  success  but  winning  it  by  sheer  hard 
work,  vision,  and  incontrovertible  genius.  His  "  Ora- 
tor"  is  a  finely  dramatic  piece  of  poetic  art,  as  well  as  a 
superbly  executed  piece  of  painting.  There  are  four 
life-sized  figures  in  the  canvas,  and  their  size  adds  to  the 
dignity  of  the  composition.  The  chief  figure  is  that  of 
an  almost  nude  Indian,  who,  with  calm  and  dignified  ges- 
ture, is  indicating  to  the  others  the  land  of  their  fathers, 
which  lies,  bathed  in  sunlight,  below  them.  Two  of  these 
figures  are  in  blankets  and  ceremonial-  or  feather-bonnets, 


Influence  of  New  Mexico  Upon  Art    385 

while  the  fourth  is  a  small  nude  boy  who  leans  against 
one  of  his  elders.  We  can  almost  hear  the  deep,  impas- 
sioned tones  of  the  speaker  as  he  declaims  against  those 
who  have  despoiled  his  people,  and  our  hearts  instinctively 
thrill  to  the  melancholy  note  in  which  he  laments  his  race's 
decline. 

W.  Herbert  Dunton  is  another  of  the  honoured  mem- 
bers of  the  Society.  For  years  he  had  been  an  illustrator 
of  the  leading  American  magazines.  Living  in  the  East 
he  had  read  other  men's  verbal  descriptions  of  the  West, 
and  had  been  thrilled  by  them  to  artistic  expression.  But, 
as  was  natural,  the  desire  was  ever  present  that  he  might 
have  his  thrills  at  first  hand,  and  become  a  painter,  rather 
than  an  illustrator.  Remington's  pictures  of  the  West 
had  always  fascinated  him  and  he  had  a  perfect  passion 
for  cowboys,  and  pioneer  life,  hence  it  was  natural  that, 
footloose,  he  should  gravitate  to  the  West.  For  many 
years  he  rambled  around  in  old  Mexico,  Oregon,  Wyo- 
ming, Montana,  Arizona,  etc.,  fraternizing  with  cow- 
punchers,  reveling  in  the  wild  excitements,  dangers,  pleas- 
ures and  picturesque  scenes  of  round-ups  and  storing  his 
mind  and  heart  with  impressions  and  material  for  future 
pictures.  His  friendship  for  Blumenschein  naturally  di- 
rected his  attention  to  Taos,  and  knowing  the  advantages 
to  be  derived  from  intimate  association  with  artistic 
friends,  the  colony  idea  appealed  to  him.  He  had  always 
wanted  to  spend  his  summers  in  the  West,  devoting  his 
winters  to  the  East,  so  here  he  anchored.  In  an  old 
Mexican  house  he  has  fully  established  himself  and  is 
happy  and  contented  in  his  work.  It  is  confessedly  of  a 
somewhat  different  character  from  that  of  his  associates. 
What  might  be  termed  the  pioneer  phases  of  Western  life 
appeal  to  him  tremendously.  The  Indian,  not  so  much 
as  an  Indian,  but  as  a  part  of  the  great  Western  life  of 


386    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

the  past.  He  sees  the  wild  free  days  of  the  Indian  and 
the  buffalo,  then  the  tremendous  changes  caused  by  the 
coming  in  of  the  invaders  —  the  Spaniard,  the  Mexican, 
the  trapper,  the  miner,  the  cowboy.  He  thrills,  and  his 
eyes  sparkle  as  though  stimulated  with  strong  wine,  when 
one  speaks  of  the  Coronado  Expedition,  that  of  Espejo, 
of  Oriate,  of  Lewis  and  Clarke,  of  the  founding  of  Astoria, 
of  Parkman's  "  Oregon  Trail,''  of  the  old  buffalo  days 
on  the  plains. 

He  rises  to  eloquence,  even  in  verbal  expression,  when 
he  tells  of  his  first  meetings  with  bands  of  cowboys,  of 
half-breed  trappers,  of  Mexican  vaqueros.  Here,  in 
Taos,  he  finds  genuine  models  for  the  pictures  of  these 
scenes  he  desires  to  paint.  It  is  the  meeting-place  of  the 
few  remnants  of  the  olden  times. 

The  adventurous  life  of  the  early  West,  in  all  its  varied 
manifestations,  appeals  to  him  as  affording  him  more  than 
a  life  work.  Let  others  paint  Indians  and  Mexicans  in 
their  every-day  life  of  to-day;  he  has  chosen  to  depict 
the  passing  of  past  phases ;  the  history,  the  romance,  the 
tragedy,  the  activity,  the  movement,  the  invasions,  the 
immigrations  of  the  past.  What  does  the  present-day 
dweller  in  Salt  Lake  City,  in  Virginia  City,  in  Reno,  in 
Truckee,  in  Los  Angeles,  in  San  Francisco,  in  Portland, 
in  Seattle,  all  Western  cities, —  know  of  the  struggles  the 
founders  of  those  cities  had  to  pass  through  ere  the  civili- 
zation he  knows  was  established?  The  slow  plodding  of 
the  ox-team-caravan  over  the  plains;  the  dread  awaiting 
the  night-attack  of  the  hostile  Indian;  the  terrors  of  the 
storm;  the  devastation  of  the  cloudburst;  the  destruction 
of  the  floods;  the  blank  horrors  of  the  trackless  and 
waterless  desert;  the  dread  sense  of  helplessness  when 
the  animals  relied  upon  for  transportation  were  stolen, 
slain  by  Indians,  or  ran  away  in  search  of  water;  the 


Influence  of  New  Mexico  Upon  Art    387 

panic  that  struck  the  heart  when  a  prairie  fire  swept  every- 
thing before  it ;  the  dull  hopelessness  of  plodding  on  when 
food  supplies  gave  out;  the  heart-sinkings  when  men  of 
the  same  party  quarreled  even  to  the  death,  and  they  must 
travel  on  knowing  that  their  fellow-traveler's  hands  were 
dyed  in  his  brother's  blood  —  ah,  these  were  some  of  the 
things  the  pioneer  had  ground  into  his  consciousness  and 
these  are  the  things  Dunton  loves  to  paint,  and,  further- 
more, he  does  it  well.  He  served  his  apprenticeship  in  a 
good  school;  the  discipline  of  the  illustrator  stands  him 
now  in  good  place.  He  sees  with  the  artist's  eye,  and  has 
the  advantage  of  a  keen  literary  training  as  well.  The 
result  is  he  is  giving  the  world  pictures  of  lasting  historic 
value,  pictures  that  will  be  more  and  more  appreciated  as 
we  get  further  away  from  the  times  and  conditions  they 
depict.  For  they  will  make  their  appeal  not  only  to  the 
patriotism  of  the  citizens  of  the  future;  there  will  be  the 
sense  of  tenderness  aroused,  when  a  man,  a  family,  re- 
calls that  these  were  scenes  in  the  life  of  their  own  an- 
cestors; their  grandfathers  and  grandmothers  —  perhaps 
when  they  were  children  —  had  endured  these  peculiarly 
trying  experiences.  The  artist  who  preserves  these  ten- 
der and  historic  memories  is  a  benefactor  to  his  race  and 
deserves  well  of  it.     Such  an  artist  is  W.  Herbert  Dunton. 

To  Taos  came  and  rejoiced  in  his  art  for  awhile  that 
ill-fated  genius,  Frank  Sauerwin,  painting  with  fervour 
and  power  while  the  flame  of  his  life  burned  low  and 
finally  went  out.  His  pictures  will  ever  remain  a  tribute 
to  the  alluring  personality  of  this  land.  He  saw  with  the 
eye  of  a  poet  and  master  and  depicted  with  the  hand  of  a 
genius. 

Another  of  the  ill-fated  ones  —  in  that  he  died  young, 
yet  helped  in  that  he  had  reveled  in  the  West  —  also  en- 
joyed some  time  here, —  Louis  Akin, —  and  his  Western 


388    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

pictures  will  ever  be  a  joy  to  their  appreciative  possessors. 

Then  came  Victor  Higgins  and  Walter  Ufer.  Hig- 
gins  had  been  a  student  at  the  Chicago  Institute,  and  also 
in  Paris  and  Munich.  When  eighteen  years  old  he  first 
came  into  New  Mexico  and  to  Taos,  but  he  was  then  un- 
formed as  an  artist.  His  training  days  had  scarce  begun. 
As  soon  as  they  were  over  his  Paris  master  told  him, 
"  You  are  past  the  student  stage  now.  Go  out  into  the 
big  country ;  go  through  your  own  land.  The  West  and 
its  people  are  stores  of  material  that  should  have  been 
felt  in  American  art  from  the  first." 

Curiously  enough,  this  advice  seemed  to  put  into  words 
the  vague  whisperings  of  impressions  gathered  during  the 
first  journey  through  the  West,  and  crystallized  a  determi- 
nation to  go  where  a  half  dormant  love  for  the  moun- 
tains, mesas,  great  plains  and  alluring  skies  had  been 
urging  him. 

His  final  advent  at  Taos  was  adventitious  and  unex- 
pected. A  syndicate  was  formed  in  Chicago  some  years 
ago,  of  which  Carter  H.  Harrison  was  the  moving  spirit. 
The  object  was  a  wise  and  practical  combination  of  phil- 
anthropy and  business  —  mostly  business.  It  provided 
for  the  financing  of  a  young  and  rising  artist  for  a  certain 
and  specifically  defined  period,  for  which  he  agreed  to 
paint  a  certain  number  of  pictures.  The  scheme  was 
essentially  practical.  Higgins  had  been  engaged  in  mural 
work,  though  for  the  past  two  years  he  had  turned  his  at- 
tention almost  solely  to  the  figure.  In  1910  he  had  gone 
to  Europe  to  study,  and  on  his  return  to  Chicago,  in  1913, 
his  work  had  captured  two  desirable  prizes,  one  from  the 
Art  Institute  and  the  other  from  the  Municipal  Art 
League.  He  had  also  won  the  Palette  and  Chisel  Club's 
Gold  Medal.  Just  at  this  time  the  Syndicate  was  looking 
for  a  new  man  to  utilize  its  financial  opportunity  and 


Influence  of  New  Mexico  Upon  Art    389 

Higgins  was  approached.  Due  consideration  decided  his 
acceptance.  When  he  arrived  at  Taos  he  was  more  than 
delighted  with  his  decision.  The  colour,  atmosphere,  en- 
vironments, variety,  character,  Indians,  Mexicans,  every- 
thing dazzled  him.  But  he  soon  organized  his  impres- 
sions. Thrills  of  emotion,  of  delight,  of  exaltation  must 
be  transferred  to  canvas  in  colour,  line  and  mass.  Pic- 
tures began  to  crowd  his  brain  and  they  soon  materialized. 
Then  he  began  to  comprehend  that  to  be  a  true  painter  of 
the  Indian  he  must  have  a  profound  knowledge  of  his 
traditions,  his  religion,  his  ceremonies,  his  history,  his 
social,  domestic  and  tribal  relationships,  his  industries, 
sports  and  recreations.  The  fields  of  Indian  archaeology 
and  ethnology  were  opened  up  to  him,  and  his  interest 
grew  into  a  passion,  until  now  he  is  firmly  attached  to 
the  land,  fond  of  the  aboriginal  "peoples,  whom  he  has 
found  courteous,  kind  and  full  of  encouragement  toward 
his  highest  aims. 

That  his  decision  was  a  wise  one  is  evidenced  by  the 
honours  his  work  has  received  —  the  first  Altman  prize 
($1,000)  at  the  National  Academy,  New  York,  in  1918; 
the  first  Logan  Medal  and  $500,  at  the  Chicago  Exhibi- 
tion, 191 7;  the  second  Logan  Medal  and  the  W.  R. 
Hearst  prize  in  1916;  the  Edward  B.  Butler  purchase 
prize,  Chicago,  in  1915  ;  and  the  Medal  of  Honour  of  the 
Chicago  Society  of  Artists  in  19 14. 

The  attractions  of  Taos  are  further  emphasized  by  the 
presence  of  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Burt  Harwood,  formerly  of 
Paris,  and  their  enthusiastic  acceptance  of  it  as  an  ideal 
location  for  the  artist.  Practically  driven  from  France 
by  the  disturbing  conditions  of  the  world  war  they  came 
back  to  their  former  home  in  the  United  States,  seeking 
a  new  artistic  environment  and  atmosphere.  They  were 
directed  to  Taos  and  immediately   fell  in  love  with  it. 


390    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

Purchasing  the  old  and  historic  adobe  house  of  Capt. 
Simpson,  the  place  has  been  transformed  to  a  refined, 
completely  equipped,  city  dwelling.  El  Pueblito,  or  the 
Smaller  Pueblo,  the  Indians  and  natives  have  christened 
it,  and  the  Harwoods  have  accepted  the  christening. 

On  approaching  the  place  an  old-fashioned  bell  tower 
greets  the  visitor.  In  this  will  be  shortly  placed  an  an- 
cient Spanish  church  bell  which  the  owners  of  El  Pueblito 
have  acquired.  The  massive  gates  to  the  entrance  of  the 
placita  are  furnished  with  wrought  iron  hinges  and  latches 
embellished  with  Indian  designs.  Over  the  main  entrance 
to  the  house  is  a  carved  beam  from  the  oldest  church  of 
Taos.  There  are  two  sculptured  serpents  on  either  side 
of  a  rose,  and  the  date  1813  with  Ave  Maria  below. 

Various  parts  of  the  place  are  among  the  most  ancient 
in  Taos.  One  building  is  called  the  "  Casa  del  Alcalde  " 
and  is  known  to  be  over  two  hundred  and  fifty  years  old. 
On  the  ceiling  of  another  part,  equally  ancient,  was  found 
written  in  old  Spanish  the  priest's  blessing,  which  trans- 
lated reads : 

"  May  the  blessings  of  God  the  Father  rest  upon  this 
house  and  all  who  inhabit  it."  . 

Mr.  Harwood  has  endeavoured  to  preserve  everything 
that  savours  of  the  olden  times, —  and  has  given  his  entire 
time  to  the  work  for  nearly  two  years. 

Nothing  has  been  ignored,  from  carved  sideboards  and 
the  like  to  the  installation  of  modern  electric  light,  water 
and  sewer  systems  and  all  modern  conveniences.  Indeed 
it  is  one  of  the  surprises  of  a  lifetime  to  walk  down  the 
winding,  dusty,  adobe-lined  back  streets  of  Taos,  in  which 
one  is  transported  back  to  sixteenth  or  seventeenth  cen- 
tury conditions,  and  then  suddenly  to  come  to  this  made- 
over  old  adobe  house.  The  exterior  is  scarce  changed, 
except  that   it   is   "  cleaned   up "   and   everything  made 


Influence  of  New  Mexico  Upon  Art    391 

healthful  and  sanitary.  In  the  old  courtyard  or  plaza, 
adjoining  the  house,  Mr.  Harwood  has  built  a  commodi- 
ous studio  that  is  worthy  to  be  the  proud  possession  of 
any  painter.  Here  are  priceless  old  Navaho,  Chimayo 
and  other  blankets.  The  wood-work  and  furniture  have 
all  been  made  by  a  local  workman  of  artistic  temperament 
under  Mr.  Harwood's  own  supervision.  He  found  a  few 
fine  old  cupboards,  chests,  and  the  like,  heirlooms  of  the 
oldest  families  of  New  Mexico.  With  open  purse  in 
hand  and  exercising  that  "  sweet  persuasiveness  "  that 
has  wron  him  many  a  model  for  his  pictures,  he  gained 
possession  of  these  desirable  bits  of  antique  wood-work, 
and  everything  in  the  house  and  studio  has  been  lovingly 
and  carefully  patterned  after  them. 

Mr.  and  Mrs.  Harwood  claim  that  they  have  "  fixed 
up  "  the  old  house  merely  for  the  duration  of  the  war,  but 
to  the  bystander  it  appears  that  they  have  made  prepara- 
tion for  a  long  life-time  at  Taos  of  happy  activity  in  their 
chosen  artistic  careers. 

Still  another  of  the  younger  members  of  the  Colony  is 
Lee  F.  Hirsch,  formerly  a  student  of  the  Cleveland 
(Ohio)  School  of  Art,  and  of  Douglas  Volk  and  Kenyon 
Cox  in  the  New  York  Academy  of  Design.  After  spend- 
ing a  year  on  the  figure,  he  turned  to  landscape  painting 
as  his  chief  work,  and  located  himself  at  Woodstock,  in 
the  Catskill  Mountains.  Then  the  desire  came  to  him  to 
go  to  Spain  and  make  a  thorough  study  of  the  Castilian 
types,  but  the  war  intervened  and  good  fortune  directed 
his  steps  to  Taos  instead.  Here,  to  his  delight,  he  finds 
all  and  more  than  he  had  expected  to  find  in  Spain.  The 
higher  types  of  Castilian  physiognomy  are  not  hard  to 
find,  and  of  the  lower  types,  the  Mexicans  afford  him  in- 
numerable opportunities.  It  is  to  these  he  turns  more 
than  to  the  Indian  —  he  believes  they  are  more  primitive, 


392    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

less  developed  in  some  respects  than  the  latter,  and  as 
they  were  of  the  people  who  laid  the  foundations  for  the 
new  civilization  in  New  Mexico  he  finds  full  scope  for  his 
artistic  talent  among  them. 

To  me  perhaps  the  most  interesting  art  development  as 
the  result  of  the  influence  of  New  Mexico  is  found  in 
the  rare  etchings  reproduced  in  these  pages.  Unfortu- 
nately no  reproduction  of  an  etching  can  more  than 
faintly  set  forth  the  delicacy,  refinement  and  suggestive- 
ness  of  the  original. 

These  are  the  work  of  Mr.  Wallace  L.  DeWolf  of  Chi- 
cago, one  of  the  earliest  trustees  of  the  Art  Institute, 
and  a  member  of  the  Print  Committee.  These  facts  re- 
veal his  artistic  leanings,  though  he  has  always  preferred 
to  regard  himself  as  a  business  man.  The  magnificent 
collection  of  Anders  Zoon's  fine  etchings  now  in  the  In- 
stitute was  made  by  him  and  is  proof  of  his  critical  judg- 
ment and  rare  appreciation.  Of  late  years  his  business 
has  demanded  constant  visits  to  the  Pacific  Coast,  and  as 
he  journeyed  to  and  fro  he  slowly  grew  to  appreciate  the 
subtle  art-appeal  of  the  desert.  From  positive  repug- 
nance and  dislike,  he  graduated  through  various  stages 
from  tolerance  to  interest,  and,  at  last,  fell  completely 
under  its  spell  and  allure.  As  soon  as  he  realized  this 
he  began  to  spend  days,  even  weeks,  at  a  time  on  the 
deserts  and  plateaus  of  New  Mexico,  Arizona  and  Cali- 
fornia far  from  the  haunts  of  the  ordinary  tourist,  and 
even  of  Westerners. 

Before  attempting  the  etchings,  however,  the  delicate 
colourings,  shadings,  tintings  and  altogether  unique  and 
marvelous  atmospheric  effects  of  the  New  Mexico  desert, 
together  with  its  unusual  floral  growths,  so  appealed  to 
DeWolf  that  he  began  to  devote  the  genius  which  con- 
fessedly is  his  to  depict  them  on  canvas. 


Influence  of  New  Mexico  Upon  Art    393 

Reproductions  of  two  of  his  striking  pictures  grace 
our  pages.  One  of  these  is  entitled :  "  The  Guardian  of 
the  Desert."  In  a  hundred  places  in  New  Mexico  just 
such  a  tree  as  this  is  often  seen,  together  with  the  mar- 
velous and  almost  unbelievable  combination  of  colours, 
shades,  tones  and  landscape  and  sky  effects.  Here  the 
very  dust  of  a  past  breeze  is  luminous  and  the  mountains 
seem  as  though  made  of  semi-precious  stones,  the  bril- 
liance of  their  colours  slightly  veiled  for  human  eyes  to 
look  upon.  And  the  sky  —  opalescent,  pearl-like,  iri- 
descent, glowing,  fit  covering  for  the  heaven  of  arch- 
angels, cherubim  and  seraphim,  makes  one  feel  he  must 
cast  off  his  shoes,  for  ground  overarched  by  such  a  sky 
must  be  holy. 

One  of  Mr.  DeWolf's  critics,  Kate  Terry  Pearson  of 
Glendale,  California,  herself  an  artist  of  repute  and 
power,  on  seeing  this  picture  went  home  and  wrote  the 
following  poem.  This,  in  itself,  is  another  remarkable 
tribute  to  the  power  of  the  country  over  an  artistic  liter- 
ary mind,  for  it  is  a  poem  of  true  fire. 

THE  LONE  TREE  IN  THE  DESERT 

Desert  sand,  and  desert  dust, 

Shades  of  azure,  mountain  mist: 
Blending  sky  and  fleeting  clouds 

By  the  fading  sunset  kissed. 

A  monarch  in  its  symmetry, 

One  solitary,  graceful  tree : 
Like  Wordsworth's  tree,  a  vision  clear 

In  perfect,  faultless  harmony. 

Guarding  the  distance,  whispering  leaves 
With  grace  and  beauty  satisfy  the  heart ; 

Itself  the  crowning  glory  and  the  dream 
Of  desert  silences  a  living  part. 


394    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

Alas !  the  change !     To-morrow's  sun  and  dust 
Will  azure  mist  and  distant  shadows  sever ! 

But  changeless  is  the  Artist's  mystic  touch 
That  paints  the  glory  and  the  dream  forever. 

The  second  of  Mr.  DeWolf's  pictures  especially  ap- 
peals to  me,  for  it  is  a  faithful  and  true  representation 
of  "  Winter  on  the  Desert."  Where  else  in  Nature  are 
such  colours,  in  these  rare  and  surprising  combinations, 
to  be  found?  And  yet,  the  desert  is  also  the  home  of  the 
quieter  tones  and  shades.  While  one  is  surprised  he  is 
not  startled  as  is  often  the  case  in  desert  colour  effects. 

The  immense  distance,  the  miles  on  miles  that  actually 
confuse  even  the  experienced  traveler  when  he  finds  him- 
self for  the  first  time  upon  the  desert,  is  here  portrayed  as 
only  a  master,  knowing  and  loving  his  subject,  could  do  it. 

After  demonstrating  his  power  over  these  subjects  in 
colour,  it  was  but  natural, —  recalling  his  life-long  devo- 
tion to  etchings, —  that  Mr.  DeWolf  should  endeavour  to 
express  his  new  passion  for  the  desert  through  the  me- 
dium of  this  interesting  art  form.  Needless  to  add,  the 
critics  and  his  fellow  craftsmen  have  been  charmed  and 
delighted  with  the  results.  For,  as  far  as  I  know,  or 
have  been  able  to  learn,  they  are  the  only  etchings  yet 
made  by  an  American  artist  in  this  wonderfully  sugges- 
tive field. 

What  is  it  that  so  hypnotizes  men  in  these  desolate 
wastes?  Try  as  he  may  no  one  can  fully  explain  it  to 
another.  He  may  have  been  scorched  and  seared  by 
desert  heat,  parched  with  desert  dryness,  chilled  to  the 
marrow  by  bleak  desert  winds,  suffocated  in  desert  sand- 
storms, buried  in  desert  snows,  half-drowned  in  desert 
cloudbursts  and  floods,  almost  swallowed  up  in  desert 
quicksands,  and  yet  the  desert  still  calls  with  a  strong 
insistence  that  will  not  be  denied. 


Etching   by    Wallace   L.   DeWolf. 

THE   "  OCATILLO." 


Influence  of  New  Mexico  Upon  Art    395 

Mr.  DeWolf's  artistic  interest  arose  supreme  over  all 
these  things.  He  forgot  them  as  the  sailor-warrior  for- 
gets his  sinking  ship  in  the  lust  of  conquest,  or  the  martyr 
the  searing  of  the  flame  in  the  joy  of  winning  the  Master's 
smile.  He  saw  the  elusive  mirage,  the  glowing  moun- 
tains at  sunrise  and  sunset,  and  the  unusually  rare  and 
delicate  shades  of  desert  foliage.  He  reveled  in  the  vel- 
vet canopy  of  night,  studded  with  gems  more  brilliant 
than  those  that  enrich  a  king's  diadem,  and  he  laughed 
with  glee  at  the  gorgeousness  of  the  desert  flowers  after 
a  rain. 

In  summer,  while  scorching  in  the  fierce  heat  of  the 
desert's  floor,  he  gazed  upon  the  snowy  summits  which 
pierced  the  bluest  of  blue  skies  in  calmest  serenity.  In 
the  fall  he  saw  the  palo  verde,  the  greasewood,  the  oca- 
tillo,  and  the  giant  saguaro  send  forth  their  peculiar 
leafage  and  flowers,  and  watched  the  chuckawalla,  the 
Gila  monster,  the  lizard,  the  horned  toad,  and  the  rattle- 
snake move  with  incredible  swiftness  or  glide  with  silent 
sinuosity  in  their  grateful  shadows.  These  and  a  score 
of  other  pictures  rushed  in  kaleidoscopic  variation  before 
his  eyes.  The  most  elusive  he  failed  to  catch,  but  some  of 
them  his  etching  tool  mastered  and  graved.  Some  of 
these  etchings  grace  these  pages.  Opposite  page  344  is 
one  entitled,  "  Palo  Verde  " —  the  tree  of  the  green  sticks. 
Who  that  has  seen  this  strange  desert  tree  creature  does 
not  recall  the  first  time  his  eyes  fell  upon  it?  Leafless, 
apparently,  it  is  utterly  unlike  anything  before  seen.  It 
seems  as  if  the  desert's  heat  had  so  scorched  its  leaves  that 
they  had  rolled  themselves  up  in  order  to  reduce  the  sur- 
face upon  which  the  burning  rays  of  the  sun  might  be 
felt.  Yet  when  it  blooms  it  is  one  of  the  most  gorgeous 
floral  sights  the  eye  of  mortal  man  ever  gazed  upon,  be- 
coming one  dazzling  mass  of  brilliant  yellow,  just  as  if 


396    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

a  gold  mist  had  surrounded  this  umbrageous  standard  of 
a  tender  green  shade.  The  massive,  columnar  structure 
of  the  giant  saguaro  reveals  itself  through  and  above  its 
peculiar  leafage,  while  the  far-away  mountains  clearly 
indicate  they  belong  to  the  same  school  of  desert  and  un- 
tamed things. 

Even  more  rarely  delicate  is  "  The  Creosote  Bush.'' 
The  dominating  and  forceful  personality  of  the  saguaro 
commands  attention,  for  it  is  seen  through  the  smaller 
and  more  refined  leaves  of  the  creosote.  These  leaves  are 
of  a  rich  polished  olive-green.  They  look  as  if  they  were 
varnished,  and  the  botanists  tell  us  they  are  so  especially 
designed,  or  have  so  evolved,  that  they  can  withstand  the 
intensest  heat.  The  flowers  are  a  delicate  yellow,  coming 
out  of  a  green  calyx,  and  the  seed-pods  are  separated 
with  tufts  like  tiny  bunches  of  cotton.  The  fragile  beauty 
of  the  creosote  is  vividly  suggested  in  Mr.  DeWolf's 
etching,  and  the  marked  difference  between  it  and  the 
saguaro  is  strongly  emphasized.  The  soft,  airy  nothing- 
ness of  the  foothills  and  superposed  peaks  is  also  set  forth 
with  masterly  skill,  for  there  are  times  when  it  is  hard 
to  believe  that  these  mountains  are  composed  of  solid 
rock,  so  fairy-like  is  their  appearance.  This  etching  is 
not  among  those  reproduced  here. 

In  "  The  Ocatillo,"  opposite  page  394,  we  have  an  en- 
tirely different  class  of  desert  verdure.  While  this  is 
commonly  spoken  of  as  a  cactus  it  is,  in  reality,  a  desert 
acacia.  Branching  out  of  the  earth  from  a  common  root, 
it  appears  like  a  group  of  crooked  sticks  covered  with 
thorns,  and,  after  a  rain,  with  delicately  green  leaves. 
The  etching  is  startlingly  realistic,  far  more  so  than  any 
photograph  I  have  ever  seen.  Its  strong  silhouette  effect 
is  exactly  as  one's  eye  often  sees  it,  and  the  poetry  of  its 
surroundings  is  not  overlooked.     The  mamillaria  cactus, 


THE     SNOWY     RANG!  . 

THREE    ETCHINGS    BY    WALLACE   L.    DEWOLF 


Influence  of  New  Mexico  Upon  Art    397 

the  opuntias  and  the  shrinking  prickly  gilias  are  delicately 
indicated  and  the  whole  picture  is  one  of  charm  and  de- 
light to  him  who  has  learned  to  love  these  gnarled  and 
prickly  sons  of  the  desert's  soil. 

Well  has  the  artist  entitled  his  etching,  opposite  this 
page,  "  The  Sentinels  of  the  Desert."  Still,  often  solitary 
and  alone,  always  silent, —  save  when  fierce  winds  blow 
through  the  fluted  columns,  or  they  are  made  vocal  with 
the  owls,  cactus  wrens  and  other  birds  that  find  shelter 
within  their  apparently  forbidding,  but,  in  reality,  friendly 
arms, —  they  suggest  the  soldier,  under  stern  command, 
standing  with  shouldered  arms,  carefully  watching  for 
the  oncoming  of  any  foe.  To  come  upon  these  giant 
saguaros  unexpectedly  is  to  give  oneself  a  startling  sur- 
prise. Sometimes  they  suggest  other  things  than  senti- 
nels. They  are  giant  monsters  of  unusual  form,  waiting 
to  spring  upon  intruding  and  unsuspecting  man.  Espe- 
cially in  the  night-time  is  this  sentinel  and  monster  idea 
likely  to  seize  the  unfamiliar  desert  traveler. 

Of  an  entirely  different  type  of  picture  is  another  op- 
posite this  page.  Here  the  artist  gives  us  the  effect  pro- 
duced upon  him  of  a  mirage, —  a  bold  and  daring  thing  to 
attempt, —  to  picture  that  which  merely  exists  as  a  figment 
of  the  imagination,  yet  it  seems  real.  The  water  of  a 
mirage  is  as  perfect,  often  more  so  to  the  eye,  as  the 
real  liquid  of  the  lakes  and  springs.  The  mystic  appear- 
ance of  the  heavens,  of  the  mountains,  and  of  the  floor  of 
the  desert,  however,  as  they  present  themselves  at  the 
time  of  the  mirage  prepares  one  to  see  the  false  water 
so  graphically  suggested  in  the  etching.  In  this  picture 
Mr.  DeWolf  has  scored  an  artistic  triumph,  one  that  I 
have  never  known  attempted  before. 

Still  giving  us  another  mood  of  the  desert,  we  are 
shown   in   the  third   etching  opposite   this   page,    "  The 


398    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

Snowy  Range."  Any  one  who  has  ridden  from  the  rail- 
way across  the  mesa  to  Taos,  in  the  late  fall  or  early 
spring,  will  see  here  his  memories  faithfully  and  delight- 
fully portrayed.  How  the  pure  white  of  the  snow  con- 
trasts the  vivid  greens  of  the  cedars  and  pines  of  the  lower 
levels,  the  grays,  olives  and  reds  of  the  rocks,  and  the 
great  patches  of  plowed  earth  of  the  valleys!  And  while 
the  etcher  gives  us  none  of  the  colour  that  exists,  his  art 
can  be  so  perfect  that  the  memory  —  the  imagination  — 
supplies  that  which  the  eye  cannot  see. 

Another  etching  in  the  series  is  that  of  "  The  Mes- 
quite," —  Prospis  glandulosa, —  a  genuine  desert  tree, 
that  Indians  and  whites  alike  regard  with  favour.  It  is 
one  of  the  most  characteristic  trees  of  the  arid  country 
and  while  it  is  occasionally  seen  as  large  in  New  Mexico 
as  the  etching  suggests,  it  is  more  often  found  as  a  tall 
shrub.  The  rich  green  leaves  afford  a  grateful  change  to 
the  traveler  whose  eyes  long  for  relief  from  the  gray 
tones  that  dazzle  one  in  the  ruddy  sun.  The  flowers  fur- 
nish the  best  of  nectar  to  the  honeybees ;  and  the  leaves 
and  bean-like  pods  are  eaten  with  eagerness  by  animals, 
wild  and  domestic.  The  large  roots,  thickened  trunks 
and  branches  make  the  best  kind  of  fuel.  The  Indian 
says  it  is  a  special  gift  of  the  gods  to  him.  In  its  leaves 
and  branches  he  finds  cooling  shelter  for  his  temporary 
home;  from  its  beans  he  obtains  food  for  his  horse,  burro 
or  cattle  and  also  for  himself,  for  he  grinds  them  into 
meal  of  which  he  makes  mush,  bread,  sugar,  and  a  re- 
freshing drink,  and  from  its  wood  he  gains  his  fuel. 

Somehow  most  of  these  qualities  are  suggested  in  the 
etching.  One  can  feel  its  cooling  shade,  and  there  is  an 
inviting,  almost  maternal  quality  in  its  outspreading 
branches,  that  the  artist  must  have  felt  ere  he  so  perfectly 
portrayed  it. 


Influence  of  New  Mexico  Upon  Art    399 

In  the  etching  entitled  "  Desert  Flora,"  Mr.  DeVVolf 
gives  a  realistic  picture  of  desert  growths  that  contains 
far  more  than  appears  at  a  casual  glance.  Towering 
above  all  else  is  the  giant  saguaro ;  while  partially  hiding 
it  is  the  ocatillo,  with  its  strong  suggestion  of  thorniness 
and  general  hostility.  Below  are  the  flat-leaved  opuntias, 
while  to  the  left,  there  are  the  delicate  and  graceful  creo- 
sote bush  and  more  ocatillo,  with  tufts  of  grass  at  their 
roots.  These  clearly  indicate  the  drifting  white  sand, 
small  piles  of  which  are  caught  at  the  bases  of  all  the 
plants.  How  interesting  a  study  this  forbidding  looking 
flora  soon  becomes,  when  one  learns  the  individualistic 
characteristics  of  each  variety ! 

Taking  these  etchings  as  a  whole,  we  are  most  grateful 
to  Mr.  DeWolf  for  his  attempt,  and  it  will  be  interesting 
to  watch  their  influence  upon  other  artists  in  the  same 
field. 

Lucille  Joullin's  three  paintings  are  joyous  and  exuber- 
ant expressions  of  her  love  for  and  devotion  to  New 
Mexico.  Years  ago,  when  her  husband  was  enamoured 
of  the  country,  the  desert  flora,  and  particularly  the  In- 
dians, she  spent  much  time  with  him  traveling  over  the 
wide  spaces  of  New  Mexico  and  associating  in  most 
primitive  simplicity  with  their  Indian  friends.  The  love 
for  country  and  people  was  then  absorbed,  almost  uncon- 
sciously, for  when  she  herself  took  up  the  brush  and 
palette  again,  at  her  husband's  death,  one  of  her  oft- 
spoken  longings  was  to  get  back  to  New  Mexico  and  paint 
Indians. 

I  found  her,  in  1916,  domiciled  with  a  Pueblo  Indian 
widow  and  her  son,  at  Isleta,  happy  and  buoyant  to  be 
at  the  work  she  loved.  Pueblo  men,  women  and  children 
soon  showed  their  friendliness  for  her  by  posing  and  in- 
viting her  to  their  homes  and  ceremonies.     The  "  Pepper 


400    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

Stringers  "  were  her  neighbours,  and  one  glance  of  them 
at  work  was  enough  to  arouse  the  artistic  instinct.  The 
vivid  red  of  the  peppers,  the  grayish-brown  background 
of  the  wall,  the  pure  blue  sky  above,  the  play  of  light 
and  shade  on  face  and  costume  of  the  workers,  all  ap- 
pealed alike  for  portrayal.  In  her  "  Isleta  Funeral  Pro- 
cession "  she  gives  us  a  picture  of  definite  historic  value; 
of  the  transitional  period  through  which  the  Indians  are 
now  passing.  Here  are  evidences  of  their  ancient  rites 
and  ceremonies,  modified  by  the  influence  of  the  Catholic 
Church.  To  the  knowing,  the  water-ollas  upon  the  heads 
of  the  mourners  are  as  significant  of  Indian  thought  as 
the  processional  cross  is  of  Catholic  thought. 

In  her  "  [Maiden  at  the  Spring,"  Mrs.  Joullin  has  given 
us  a  tender  and  beautiful  touch  of  the  feminine  side  of 
Indian  life.  The  girls  are  brought  up  from  their  earliest 
years  to  be  the  water-carriers  —  the  life-bringers —  of 
their  race.  The  beauty,  grace,  sweet  purity,  and  inno- 
cence, combined  with  the  native  dignity  that  this  high 
mission  confers  upon  its  bearers,  might  well  teach  a  won- 
derful lesson  to  the  useless  and  frivolous  of  the  maidens 
of  the  white  race. 

In  her  San  Francisco  studio  Mrs.  Joullin  has  many 
New  Mexico  studies,  sketches  and  finished  pictures,  and 
happy  are  those  who  have  placed  upon  their  home  walls, 
the  vivid  expressions  of  her  love  for  this  "  Land  of  High 
Colours  and  High   Places." 

Of  equal  interest  and  importance  with  Mrs.  Joullin's 
"  Isleta  Funeral  "  is  Eva  Almond  Withrow's  "  Thanks- 
giving Dance  at  Acoma."  In  this  ceremony  there  is  the 
same  combination  of  pure  Indian  and  Catholic  thought 
and  expression.  The  dance,  however,  is  the  essentially 
aboriginal  part.  The  intense  earnestness,  the  fervour, 
the  fanatic  zeal  that  leads  the  young  men  to  their  most 


Influence  of  New  Mexico  Upon  Art    401 

exhaustive  endeavours  are  clearly  depicted  upon  the  faces 
of  the  dancers,  and  the  whole  effect  of  terraced-houses, 
spectators,  dancers  and  feeling  is  truthfully  and  artistic- 
ally rendered. 

Of  the  two  paintings  of  Carlos  Vierra, —  one  of  the 
New  Art  Museum  of  Santa  Fe,  and  the  other  of  the  old 
Franciscan  Mission  of  Zia, —  it  may  be  said  that  they 
are  fine,  artistic  expressions  of  his  almost  passionate  and 
reverent  devotion  to  the  native  architecture  of  New  Mex- 
ico. Reference  to  the  chapter  devoted  to  this  subject  will 
show  that  he  is  the  principal  exponent  of  this  fascinating 
theme. 

The  painting  by  William  Lees  Judson,  Dean  of  the 
Fine  Arts  Department  of  the  University  of  Southern 
California,  representing  the  "  Easter  Procession  of  the 
Penitentes,"  is  a  picture  of  peculiar  value  and  worth.  It 
is  the  first  attempt,  as  far  as  I  am  aware,  truthfully  to 
depict  on  canvas  this  amazing  spectacle  of  fanatic  devo- 
tion to  a  high  conception.  In  the  chapter  upon  the  sub- 
ject I  have  tried  to  express  the  deep  feelings  of  emotion 
with  which  one  witnesses  this  strange  and  almost  unbe- 
lievable ceremonial,  and  Dr.  Judson  has  wonderfully 
caught  its  profoundest  spirit,  and  transferred  it  to  his 
canvas.  This  is  certain  to  become  a  memorable  and  fa- 
mous picture. 

While  in  this  chapter  I  have  dwelt  exclusively  upon  the 
"  Taos  School  of  Artists,"  and  the  paintings,  etc.,  of  this 
volume,  it  must  not  be  deemed  that  I  have  given  a  com- 
plete survey  of  the  artistic  field  of  New  Mexico.  An 
equally  interesting  and  comprehensive  chapter  might  well 
be  written  upon  the  work  of  the  Santa  Fe  artists  and, 
indeed,  a  whole  volume  of  this  size  would  be  inadequate 
to  sing  their  well-deserved  praises.  Many  of  these  art- 
ists have  taken  up  more  or  less  permanent  residence  in 


402    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

the  land,  and  a  score  of  others  return  with  regularity 
to  renew  their  impressions  and  add  to  their  canvases. 
Albuquerque,  in  time,  will  have  its  art  colony,  unless  by 
its  failure  to  catch  the  artistic  drift,  and  anchor  it  in  the 
growing  city,  it  settles  in  the  very  precincts  of  the  old 
church  on  the  mesa  heights  of  Acoma. 

Suffice  it  to  say  that  the  world  will  hear  more  and  more, 
as  the  years  pass,  of  the  growing  influence  upon  art  and 
artists  of  this  Sunshine  Land  of  New  Mexico. 


CHAPTER  XXIV 

ANCIENT    AND    MODERN    METHODS    OF   SEEING 
NEW    MEXICO 

Were  my  first  experiences  of  travel  in  New  Mexico 
written  in  detail  they  would  lead  the  reader  to  assume 
that  I  must  have  been  here  a  century  or  more  ago,  save 
for  the  presence  of  the  railway.  I  have  ridden  scores  of 
miles  on  horse-,  mule-,  or  burro-back ;  and  hundreds  of 
miles  in  rude  springless  lumber  and  other  wagons,  jolt- 
ing, jarring,  shaking  over  the  rudest  kind  of  roads.  On 
one  occasion  I  made  a  trip,  seated  on  the  rear  axle  of  a 
lumber  wagon,  on  which  a  few  sacks  of  grain  had  been 
tied,  with  a  lady  missionary  by  my  side.  As  we  went  up 
the  steep  and  rocky  mountains  and  down  the  sliding  can- 
yons, over  roads  that  were  rutted,  or  rocky,  or  washed 
out,  there  was  nothing  for  it  but  to  cling  together,  in 
mutual  endeavour  to  keep  from  slipping  off,  fore  and  aft, 
or  being  thrown  into  the  wheels.  I  met  the  lady  again  a 
short  time  ago.  She  is  still  a  resident  of  New  Mexico, 
but  is  now  the  mother  of  three  sturdy  sons,  one  of  them 
with  Uncle  Sam's  soldiers  at  Camp  Cody.  She  laughed 
heartily  as  I  recalled  the  "  clinging  "  experiences  we  had 
on  that  occasion.  I  have  ridden  in  ox-carts,  burro-carts, 
army-ambulances,  old-fashioned  stage-coaches,  and  mod- 
ern buggies,  with  Mormons.  Indians,  Mexicans,  Catholic 
priests,  Protestant  missionaries,  and  Indian  shamans. 
One  of  these  experiences  is  related  in  the  chapter  entitled 
"  My  Adventures  in  Zuni,"  wherein  my  companion  and  I 
—  neither  of  us  expert  horsemen  —  drove  two  fiery  and 

403 


404    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

untamed  broncos,  directly   from  the  range,  and,  neces- 
sarily, had  a  lively  and  exciting  time. 

Of  an  entirely  different  character  was  my  solitary  drive 
from  Fruitland  to  the  Chaco  Canyon  ruins.  I  had  driven 
across  the  Navaho  reservation,  from  northwestern  Ari- 
zona, with  a  Mormon  friend  in  his  freight  wagon.  We 
had  camped  at  night  under  the  stars,  rolled  up  in  our 
blankets,  with  our  feet  to  the  camp-fire,  and  were  gen- 
erally under  way  again,  having  breakfasted,  fed  and  har- 
nessed our  six  horses,  before  three  a.  m.  each  morning 
Then,  after  a  few  davs'  rest  with  friends,  and  an  inter- 
esting visit  t<?  the  Navaho  Indian  school  at  Shiprock,  I 
found  that  my  friend  Charlie  Algert  had  left  word  —  he 
had  been  called  East  —  that  I  might  take  his  horse  and 
buggy  if  I  wished  to  risk  going  alone,  across  country,  to 
Chaco  Canyon.  Did  I  ?  It  was  just  what  I  was  aching 
to  do. 

And  I  ached  as  I  did  it.  For  it  was  winter  time, — 
December  or  January,  I  think, —  and  the  nights  were  bit- 
terly cold,  the  thermometer  often  going  below  zero. 
That  was  a  lonely  trip,  for  I  would  drive  all  day  and 
seldom  see  a  soul,  and  he  would  be  a  sheep-herding 
Navaho.  I  did  meet  one  interesting  character,  however ; 
a  man  on  foot,  who  was  of  the  intelligent  and  purposeful 
"  hobo  "  type.  He  was  a  Walt-Whitman-lover  who  knew 
the  joy  of  the  "open  road."  With  grub-sack,  canteen, 
and  note-book  he  seemed  quite  contented.  It  was  his 
way  of  gaining  health  and  "  seeing  the  country."  He 
read  me  from  his  notes  of  his  sight-seeing  of  little  known 
places  in  Colorado,  Utah,  and  Arizona,  of  Cliff-Dwellings, 
Petrified  Forest,  Grand  Canyon,  Natural  Bridges,  Pic- 
tured Rocks,  etc.,  and  now  he  was  going  to  visit  the  Chaco 
ruins,  and  the  pueblos  of  Zuni,  Acoma,  and  the  Rio 
Grande.     I   was  on  my  way  back   from   Chaco.     Each 


Methods  of  Seeing  New  Mexico       405 

night  I  had  camped,  alone,  in  the  open.  On  that  high 
plateau,  with  wind  blowing,  the  camp-fire  made  of  sage- 
brush was  not  only  comforting  but  was  all  that  saved  me 
from  freezing  to  death.  For  the  thermometer  generally 
went  down  to  about  25  degrees  Fahr.  below  zero,  some- 
time during  the  night.  My  sturdy  horse,  though  well 
blanketed  and  picketed  as  near  the  fire  as  I  could  get  him, 
was  eager  to  get  his  breakfast  and  start  off  at  a  good 
warming  pace  each  morning.  One  night  we  stopped  at 
an  Indian  trading  post.  The  trader  invited  me  to  roll 
out  my  blankets  inside  the  store,  which  I  did,  but,  when 
I  saw  his  greasy  and  dirty  frying  pans,  his  unwashed 
hands  making  biscuits,  and  his  unscoured  tin  cups  set  out 
for  coffee,  I  really  wished  for  the  sweet  purity  of  the 
freezing  open.  I  was  sorry  I  had  not  stuck  to  my  camp- 
ing-out. 

I  might  tell  of  the  companionable  trips  with  such  men 
as  my  friend  William  McGuinnes,  of  lunches  and  evening 
meals  in  the  open  by  the  side  of  the  Rio  Grande,  or  under 
the  pines  of  the  Taos  mountains  ;  or  of  a  jaunt  I  took  with 
Matthew  Howell  into  the  heart  of  the  Navaho  Country. 
Who  could  ever  forget  that  experience  ?  We  were  driv- 
ing from  St.  Michaels  to  Ganado.  The  day  was  bright 
and  clear,  and  our  hearts  were  bright  and  our  eyes  were 
clear,  for  we  were  seeing  sights,  enjoying  the  delightfully 
bracing  air  of  the  plateau,  and  of  the  pines,  pinions  and 
cedars.  We  had  stopped  for  lunch  under  the  trees,  and 
now,  as  evening  drew  near,  were  on  the  home  stretch  — 
a  straight  piece  of  road,  fenced  with  barbed  wire  on 
either  side  —  to  Ganado.  In  five  minutes,  or  less,  we 
should  be  in  the  hospitable  home  of  Lorenzo  Hubbell, 
that  genial  and  royal  host,  at  whose  table  every  reputable 
traveler  of  the  past  thirty  years  has  been  made  welcome. 
Suddenly  a  tug  slipped  off  the  nigh  single-tree.     Lashing 


406    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

the  legs  and  side  of  the  bronco  it  so  startled  him  that  he 
made  a  leap  forward.  This  unslipped  the  neck  yoke  from 
the  pole,  and,  instantly,  El  diablo  was  to  pay.  Imagine 
our  situation !  One  horse  with  a  tug  loose,  the  pole  down 
on  the  ground,  driving  into  the  road  and  striking  every 
rock  or  slight  elevation,  and  in  danger  of  being  snapped 
in  two  every  moment,  both  horses  striving  and  struggling 
to  run  away.  For,  as  Matthew  drew  back  on  the  lines, — 
there  being  no  neck-yoke  on  the  pole  to  tighten  up  the 
slack, —  he  pulled  the  swiftly  moving  vehicle  on  to  their 
heels.  This  made  them  frantic.  They  kicked  and 
plunged  and  could  not  be  controlled.  Their  irregular 
traction  on  the  single-trees  swung  the  pole  to  and  fro, 
and  there  we  were,  swaying  first  to  one  side  of  the  road, 
then  to  the  other,  in  a  most  drunken  and  irresponsible 
dance.  Yes,  dance  it  was ;  for  each  time  the  end  of  the 
pole  struck  the  earth,  it  penetrated  the  ground  and  gave 
the  wagon  a  jerk  that  nearly  threw  us  off  the  seat.  Then, 
suddenly,  the  pole  swerved  to  the  left,  and  we  were  headed 
direct  for  the  barbed-wire  fence.  In  view  of  barbed 
wire  I  invariably  think  quickly,  for  I  have  had  one  or 
two  rather  narrow  escapes  from  this  tearing  and  lacerat- 
ing entanglement.  I  decided  to  jump.  My  subconscious 
brain  seconded  the  motion,  and  I  leaped,  fortunately 
clearing  the  wagon  and  plunging  horses.  As  I  did  not 
fall  I  was  able  to  rush  to  the  head  of  the  partially  loose 
horse  and  hang  on  to  him,  while,  simultaneously,  an 
Indian  who  had  observed  our  plight  and  run  out  to  aid 
us,  grabbed  the  other.  In  less  time  than  it  takes  to  write 
it,  the  harness  was  readjusted,  the  broncos  quieted  down, 
and  I  had  taken  my  seat,  and  we  drove  to  the  store  as 
gently  as  though  there  had  been  no  such  mad  excitement  as 
I  have  tried  to  describe. 

At  Ganado  I  said  Adieu!  to  Howell  and  when  next  I 


Methods  of  Seeing  New  Mexico       407 

drove  it  was  with  a  Navaho  and  his  ponies.  We  went  up 
into  the  Tunicha  mountains,  and  then  to  Chin  Lee,  and 
a  day  or  two  later  another  Navaho  went  up  the  glorious 
Canyon  de  Chelly  with  me,  where  we  slept  on  the  sand- 
stone rocks,  and  ate  our  meals  together,  and  climbed  to 
the  Cliff-dwellings  hidden  in  the  majestic  walls  of  that 
stupendous  canyon. 

These  are  but  samples  of  stories  of  typical  trips  I  have 
been  making  in  New  Mexico  for  over  thirty  years. 

But  now  a  change  comes  over  the  scene.  Those  "  an- 
cient-day "  methods  are  now  followed  only  by  the  people 
of  ancient  mind.  The  mentally  alert,  the  progressive, 
have  kept  abreast  of  the  times.  The  automobile  now 
dashes  over  roads  that  used  to  know  nothing  swifter  than 
the  Indian  runner.  Modern  system  and  efficiency  have 
taken  the  place  of  the  "  happy-go-lucky  "  chance  methods 
of  the  past.  All  one  has  to  do  is  to  wire  to  the  manager 
of  the  Rocky  Mountain  Camp  at  Santa  Fe,  tell  him  where 
you  want  to  go,  and  how,  and  the  number  of  your  party, 
and  on  your  arrival  everything  will  be  ready  for  you. 

Personally  I  feel  there  is  no  way  equal  to  that  of  going 
horseback,  with  pack-  and  camp-equipment.  This  re- 
quires more  time,  but  it  is  time  well  spent,  for  it  allows 
the  country  to  "  seep  "  into  one's  mentality  as  well  as  his 
physical  being.  It  is  good  to  bathe  in  a  pure  atmosphere 
of  germ-free  and  sun-laden  air,  but  it  is  better  to  bathe 
mentally  in  the  vastness,  power,  silence,  and  serenity  of 
this  remarkable  country.  Necessarily  the  essential  physi- 
cal conditions  for  such  a  trip  are  good  saddle-  and  pack- 
animals,  a  guide  who  knows  the  country  with  its  water- 
holes  and  best  stopping  places,  as  well  as  its  scenic  and 
romantic  allurements,  who  can  follow  dim  mountain-, 
desert-,  and  canyon-trails,  who  knows  how  to  ride,  care 
for  his   stock,   "  throw   the   diamond  " —  the   hitch   that 


408    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

makes  his  pack  secure  —  cook  and  serve  the  food  in 
palatable  style,  and,  besides  all  these  simple  things,  can 
keep  the  traveler  cheerful,  happy  and  encouraged  when 
he  is  weary  and  hungry  before  he  reaches  the  evening 
camping-place.  Such  men  are  not  to  be  found  every- 
where, but  the  Rocky  Mountain  Camp  Company  has 
seemed  to  secure  quite  a  number  of  them.  Hence,  hav- 
ing myself  tested  their  capacity  and  satisfied  myself  of 
their  fine  quality  I  am  glad  to  pass  on  the  good  word  to 
my  readers.  As  to  where  they  will  take  travelers,  the  one 
word  "  anywhere  "  is  a  sufficient  answer,  but  for  those 
who  would  like  more  detailed  information  it  can  be  se- 
cured by  writing  direct  to  the  Company  at  Santa  Fe  or  to 
the  General  Passenger  Agent  of  the  Santa  Fe  railway 
either  in  Chicago,  Illinois;  Albuquerque,  New  Mexico; 
Topeka,  Kansas;  Los  Angeles,  California;  or  San  Fran- 
cisco, California. 

While  the  railway  officials  have  nothing  whatever  to 
do  with  the  enterprise  of  this  company,  they  feel  as  I  do, 
viz.,  that  it  is  a  pleasure  to  further  the  work  of  such 
efficient  men  who  are  helping,  so  delightfully,  to  make 
this  wonderful  country  better  known. 


CHAPTER  XXV 

NEW    MEXICO    AS    THE    NATION'S    PLAYGROUND 

It  is  large  enough  —  there  is  no  question  about  that. 
See  the  figures  of  its  vastness  quoted  elsewhere.  It  has 
variety  enough  to  meet  all  tastes,  variety  in  climates,  alti- 
tudes, geographical  conditions  and  sources  of  interest. 
The  chapters  on  mountains  and  flora  tell  of  its  versatility 
and  diversity  of  climate.  Yet  this  must  not  be  under- 
stood as  an  acrobatic  diversity :  that  is,  a  climate  that  is 
always  turning  somersaults  upon  itself.  There  is  noth- 
ing fickle  in  New  Mexico  climate.  Its  diversity  depends 
largely  upon  its  topographic  variations.  You  are  not 
sweltering  to-day  and  freezing  to-morrow  in  the  same 
location.  To  get  change  you  must  travel,  but  when)  and 
as,  you  travel  you  may  be  accommodated  to  anything  you 
want. 

In  altitudes  New  Mexico  is  equally  varied.  One  may 
like  to  be  in  the  lower  valleys  at  elevations  near  to  sea 
level,  or  he  may  enjoy  the  vast  plateaus  at  4,000,  5,000 
feet  general  elevation,  or  the  foothills  or  slopes  of  the 
giant  mountains  that  tower  up  to  over  10,000  feet,  whose 
summits  are  equally  accessible  to  him. 

Consequently  if  he  love  desert  the  visitor  or  home- 
seeker  may  have  all  he  seeks  of  it;  if  he  wants  to  be  on 
the  arable  land  by  the  side  of  a  great  river,  he  can  equally 
be  accommodated ;  or  if  he  wants  to  live  on  mesa  heights, 
in  splendid  isolations,  in  lava  fields,  in  extinct  volcanoes, 
in  giant  forests,  or  in  the  solitude  of  mountain  heights, 
each  and  all  of  his  wishes  are  provided  for. 

409 


410    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

As  for  sources  of  interest  the  chapters  of  the  foregoing 
pages  have  been  written  to  no  avail  if  they  have  not  dem- 
onstrated what  one  may  enjoy  in  these  regards.  What 
more  does  the  curious  American  want  than  Pueblo  In- 
dians of  a  score  of  towns,  nomad  Apaches,  Mexicans  with 
their  individualistic  habits  and  customs,  including  the 
unbelievable  Penitentes,  cowboys,  forest  rangers,  sheep 
herders'  camps,  artist  colonies,  sleepy  American  settle- 
ments, dead  and  alive  mining  camps,  some  of  the  most 
active  and  pushing  of  American  cities,  great  irrigation 
systems,  the  historic  Inscription  Rock,  quaint,  ancient 
Santa  Fe,  the  old  Franciscan  Missions,  the  blanket-mak- 
ing Navahos  and  Chimayos,  the  pottery-,  silver-ware  and 
basket-making  Indians,  the  cliff-dwellings,  the  Mormons, 
the  wonderful  rock-carvings,  the  coal  fields?  There 
surely  is  enough  to  interest  the  really  intelligent  and  wide- 
awake American. 

The  roads  of  the  State  are  not  yet  in  as  good  condition 
as  in  the  older,  more  populous  and  more  wealthy  States. 
It  would  be  unreasonable  to  expect  that  they  should  be. 
But  the  people  are  growingly  alert  to  this  great  need  and 
are  stretching  every  nerve  to  put  in  transcontinental  high- 
ways and  roads  that  lead  to  the  most  scenic  and  historic 
regions.  A  few  years  will  make  a  marked  improvement 
in  this  regard.  The  motorist  should  note  the  climatic  and 
topographic  differences  between  the  northern  and  south- 
ern routes  in  winter  and  summer.  Go  to  the  south  in 
winter.  The  mountain  passes  are  lower,  and  the  climate 
more  hospitable.  In  the  summer,  however,  change  the 
route.  The  snow  has  gone,  the  roads  are  of  natural 
gravel  for  scores  of  miles,  and  the  cool  breezes  from  the 
snowfields  of  the  near-by  mountains  grateful  and  sooth- 
ing. 

Florence  Merriam  Bailey,  the  well-known  ornithologist, 


New  Mexico  as  tne  Nation's  Playground    411 

gives  some  delightful  pictures  of  New  Mexico's  attrac- 
tions in  her  various  contributions  to  the  bird  magazines, 
and  it  is  a  great  regret  that  one  cannot  quote  some  of 
them. 

Let  one  wander  where  he  will  in  New  Mexico  he  will 
find  something  unique  in  its  interest  and  allurement. 
The  Taos  region  is  full  of  fascination.  Santa  Fe  is  the 
center  of  a  world  of  splendidly  varied  attractions ;  Jemez 
has  its  hot  springs ;  Pecos,  its  ruins  of  the  old  church, 
a  century  and  a  half  older  than  any  of  the  Missions  of 
California;  Acoma  is  sai  generis  —  nothing  just  like  it  in 
the  world ;  Albuquerque  has  its  Sandia  Mountains,  as  well 
as  its  quaint  Mexican  villages,  and  its  close  proximity  to 
some  of  the  historic  antiquities  of  the  American  world ; 
all  a-down  the  course  of  the  Rio  Grande  are  fascinations 
in  recent  irrigation  development ;  at  Silver  City  and  there- 
abouts are  mines  and  mountains  galore,  and  near  by  is 
Fort  Bayard,  one  of  the  U.  S.  Government  Sanitariums  — 
but  these  are  merely  hints  of  the  scores  of  places  that 
might  be,  and  ought  to  be  named,  would  space  permit. 

There  is  one  place,  however,  in  southern  New  Mexico, 
that  is  so  essentially  a  Western  pleasure  spot,  that  it  is 
deserving  of  especial  mention.  This  is  Cloudcroft,  lo- 
cated at  9,000  feet,  nearly  2,500  feet  higher  than  the  sum- 
mit of  the  highest  mountain  in  the  whole  eastern  and 
middle-western,  northern  and  southern  States,  east  of  the 
Rockies,  viz.,  Mt.  Washington,  New  Hampshire.  It  is 
on  one  of  the  crests  of  the  Sacramento  range,  overlooking 
the  Tularosa  Valley,  in  which  are  located  the  famous 
"  White  Sands." 

Here,  surrounded  by  giant  pines  with  willowy  moun- 
tain crests  and  folds  leading  the  eye  down  to  an  expan- 
sive valley  panorama,  companioning  the  very  stars  of  the 
peerless  New  Mexico  sky,  "  The  Lodge  "  is  located,  a 


412    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

hundred  thousand  dollar  hotel,  above  the  clouds,  and  a 
summer  colony  establishes  itself  each  year.  Imagine  any 
of  the  famous  resort  hotels  of  the  East  perched  up  at  an 
altitude  of  9,000  feet,  with  the  most  elevated  golf  links 
in  the  world,  with  tennis  courts,  bowling  alleys,  as  well  as 
horseback-riding,  mountain-climbing  and  the  like.  There 
is  quite  a  little  settlement  in  summer,  scores  of  people 
owning  their  own  cottages  and  sending  their  families  up 
for  three  or  four  months.  There  are  several  hotels, 
stores,  etc.,  where  all  supplies  and  camping-outfits  may 
be  secured,  so  that  the  traveler  of  every  kind  is  well  pro- 
vided for.  Here,  too,  is  located  the  Baby  Sanitarium, 
where  infants  are  cared  for  by  the  El  Paso  Medical  So- 
ciety, under  the  auspices  of  the  Woman's  Equal  Suffrage 
League.  This  is  a  modernly  equipped  institution ;  the 
sun  and  pine-laden  air,  combined  with  the  pure  atmos- 
phere wafted  up  from  Nature's  great  laboratories  beneath, 
aided  by  the  medical  care  of  the  physicians  and  the  tender 
attention  of  the  nurses  working  wonders  upon  sickly  and 
frail  infants.  Thousands  of  lives  have  undoubtedly  been 
saved  by  a  few  months'  sojourn  here  at  the  right  time. 
Some  one  has  well  said, 

Nature  and  man  worked  together  to  make  Cloudcroft  what  it  is  — 
a  summer  play-ground,  a  summer  Paradise  —  combining  all  modern 
comforts,  yet  keeping  close  to  Nature.  Nature  provided  high  vaulted 
skies,  bright  sunshine,  cool  breezes,  fields  of  flowers  and  a  great 
pine  forest  sheltering  birds  of  many  songs.  Man  built  a  railroad  up 
the  mountains,  made  roads  and  bridle-paths  through  the  forest, 
built  the  "  Lodge  "  and  pavilion  and  laid  out  pleasure  grounds  for 
the  summer  colony. 

Cloudcroft  is  26  miles  from  Alamogordo,  one  of  the 
prominent  towns  on  the  main  line  of  the  El  Paso  and 
Southwestern  System.  For  centuries  the  Mescalero 
Apache  Indians  every  year  used  to  come  across  the  plains, 


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New  Mexico  as  the  Nation's  Playground    413 

bringing  whatever  sick  of  men,  women  and  children  they 
had,  climbing  their  rude  trails  to  the  pine  groves  of  what 
is  now  known  as  Cloudcroft.  Here,  they  declared, 
"  Those  Above  "  especially  cooled  the  atmosphere,  dis- 
tilled the  virtue  from  the  pine  and  other  health-giving 
trees,  shrubs,  and  flowers,  and  caused  new  life  and  vigour 
to  be  given  to  all  who  were  sick.  It  was  a  place  especially 
blessed,  a  spot  where  the  "  Shadow  People  "  themselves 
came  and  walked  upon  the  earth.  Hence  it  was  estab- 
lished as  a  health  and  pleasure  resort  long  before  the  white 
man's  foot  invaded  the  continent,  centuries  before  Coro- 
nado's  band  wearily  plodded  across  New  Mexico  in  search 
of  the  "  Seven  Cities  of  Cibola." 

When  civilization  began  to  invade  the  valleys,  and  tim- 
ber was  needed  from  the  mountains  to  build  towns,  cities 
and  villages  for  white  men,  a  railroad  was  built  for  log- 
ging purposes  and  the  pine  trees  were  cut  and  hauled  to 
Alamogordo  to  the  mills.  This  railroad,  26  miles  from 
Alamogordo  to  Cloudcroft,  is  pronounced  a  wonderful 
feat  of  engineering  skill,  being  a  standard  gauge  road 
climbing  over  a  mile  in  height,  using  numerous  switch- 
backs, double  reverse  curves  and  bridges  in  the  ascent. 

Now,  during  the  season,  which  lasts  from  June  1  to 
September  30th,  daily  passenger  trains  ply  between  Cloud- 
croft and  El  Paso,  1 12  miles  away,  so  that  it  is  the  chosen 
resort  not  only  of  a  large  part  of  New  Mexico,  but  of  the 
residents  of  this  progressive  and  bustling  Texas  city. 

At  a  little  lower  elevation  than  Cloudcroft  are  two  other 
resorts,  equally  beautiful  in  surroundings,  Mountain  Park 
and  High  Rolls,  and  the  three  resorts  combined  offer  a 
variety  as  delightful  as  they  are  unique  and  elevated. 
Every  summer  visitor  to  the  far  West  would  find  it  to  his 
delight  and  profit  to  stop  over  for  a  few  days,  a  week,  or 
a  month  at  these  rarely  beautiful  spots. 


CHAPTER  XXVI 

EDUCATION    IN    NEW    MEXICO 

In  the  early  days  of  New  Mexico  history  it  cannot  be 
said  that  education  was  popular  with  the  masses  of  the 
people,  or  with  the  better  classes  for  the  people.  With- 
out indulging  in  any  crimination  it  cannot  be  denied  that 
the  ordinary  Mexican  peon  was  not  educated,  nor  was 
there  much  if  any  attempt  made,  on  the  part  of  his  reli- 
gious, political  or  social  superiors,  to  give  him  an  educa- 
tion. Whether  that  were  a  good  or  a  bad  policy  I  do  not 
care  to  argue.  It  is  sufficient  to  affirm  that  it  is  now  the 
practice  of  every  State  in  the  Union  to  demand  a  certain 
amount  of  education  for  all  of  its  citizens  —  potential  or 
actual.  The  great  war  has  emphasized  the  need  for  this, 
and  there  is  little  doubt  but  that  federal,  as  well  as  state, 
requirements  will  be  constantly  enlarged,  until  illiteracy 
is  absolutely  banished,  and  every  citizen  speaks,  reads 
and  writes  the  English  language.  While,  personally,  I 
do  not  care  to  enter  into  the  argument  as  to  the  "  why  "  of 
the  ignorance  and  illiteracy  that  exist  even  to-day  in  New 
Mexico,  it  will  be  interesting  to  the  general  reader  to 
peruse  a  portion  of  a  paper  read  by  an  educational  official 
of  the  State  at  the  State  Teachers'  Institute,  as  recently 
as  19 1 7.  I  quote  from  the  original  manuscript  used  on 
that  occasion : 

In  order  to  arrive  at  a  better  understanding  concerning  illiteracy 
in  New  Mexico,  it  will  be  necessary  to  revert  to  our  early  history, 
when,  until  a  short  time  ago  there  existed  two  classes  of  people,  the 
rich,    powerful   and   influential,   and   the   poor,    weak   and   helpless. 

414 


Education  in  New  Mexico 415 

The  former  ruled  with  an  iron  hand  and  practised  slavery  in  various 
degrees,  entering  into  agreements  with  the  latter,  whereby  their 
children  were  parceled  out  for  a  number  of  years  to  be  used  in  the 
herding  of  sheep,  goats,  cattle,  and  the  performance  of  other  menial 
services.  A  lordship  existed  to  the  extent  that  one  class  was  kept  at 
the  mercy  of  the  other,  which  gradually  grew  into  the  custom  of  the 
poor  serving  the  wealthier  peoples.  For  years  no  public  schools  ex- 
isted, and  in  later  years  when  the  public  school  system  was  estab- 
lished, it  was  a  mere  farce  almost  to  the  time  New  Mexico  became  a 
State.  The  public  schools,  especially  in  the  remote  rural  communi- 
ties, were  such  in  name  only.  Lack  of  sufficient  revenue  for  school 
purposes  resulted  in  inefficiency  and  incompetency  in  whatever  school 
work  was  undertaken.  Poor  and  inappropriate  school  houses,  built 
for  dancing  purposes  and  loaned  or  rented  to  the  districts  to  hold 
school  in;  unskilled  and  unprepared  teachers  in  charge  of  the  so- 
called  schools;  short  terms,  all  these,  resulted  in  the  masses  being 
very  poorly  served.  We  have  suffered  and  are  suffering  to  a  great 
extent  from  the  traditions  and  customs  handed  down  from  our  fore- 
fathers, who,  if  they  understood  equality  did  not  apparently  con- 
sider it  in  connection  with  the  rights  and  privileges  due  their  chil- 
dren. 

In  1835  Colonel  Albino  Perez  was  sent  by  the  officials 
in  Mexico  to  take  charge  of  the  departmental  affairs  of 
New  Mexico.  The  appointment  seems  to  have  been  un- 
fortunate from  a  political  sense,  for  it,  doubtless,  was  the 
moving  cause  of  the  revolution  of  1837-8.  Yet  Gover- 
nor Perez  was  a  man  of  high  ideals  and  would  have  in- 
augurated a  plan  of  public  education  had  the  revolutionists 
not  cut  off  his  head.  In  the  Santa  Fe  Archives  is  the 
proclamation  and  plan  for  public  instruction  in  the  city 
of  Santa  Fe  made  by  the  Governor. 

It  is  a  proclamation  that  showed  his  advanced  ideas  on 
education  and  would  have  worked  a  mental  revolution  in 
Santa  Fe  and  New  Mexico  had  it  been  carried  out. 

Unfortunately  a  revolution  effectually  quieted  the  hand 
that  wrote  this  first  charter  of  education  for  New  Mexico. 
Then  came  a  greater  upheaval,  in  the  seizing  of  the  Terri- 
tory by  the  United   States.     It  might  be   thought   that 


416    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

public  education  would  have  received  a  great  impetus 
under  our  new  and  progressive  government,  but  such  was 
not  the  case.  New  Mexico,  ever  since  the  advent  of  the 
Spaniards,  has  been  the  warring  ground  of  the  Indians. 
If  the  Pueblos  were  quiet,  the  Apaches  and  Navahos  were 
on  the  warpath.  And  while,  in  a  comparatively  short 
time,  the  greater  depredations  of  the  Indians  were 
checked,  it  was  utterly  impossible  to  exercise  a  restraining 
hand  in  the  outlying  or  country  districts.  Here  a  hand- 
ful of  renegades  could  plunder,  burn  and  terrorize  even 
though  they  did  not  kill,  and  it  took  several  decades  to 
make  life  and  property  reasonably  safe  everywhere. 

Then,  when  safety  was  assured  there  were  no  build- 
ings, teachers,  or  money  in  the  treasury  for  educational 
purposes.  Indeed,  everything  was  lacking  except  poten- 
tial pupils,  and  the  parents  of  these  had  no  desire  that 
their  children  should  be  educated. 

Even  in  the  cities  and  towns  there  were  no  public 
schools.  The  Catholic  church  has  always  been  opposed 
to  public  schools  —  is  to-day  —  believing  it  better  that 
children  should  have  no  education,  than  that  they  be  edu- 
cated without  a  knowledge  of  religion  —  as  they  under- 
stand and  teach  it.  Hence,  though  they  had  no  funds 
with  which  to  inaugurate  their  own  system  of  parochial 
schools,  they  strenuously  opposed  all  suggestions  and 
movements  for  the  establishment  of  common  or  public 
schools.  Indeed,  in  the  early  days,  many  of  the  Mexican 
priests  were  themselves  so  illiterate  and  degraded  that 
Bishop  Lamy  suspended  them  from  their  holy  office. 
These  false  pastors  not  only  kept  their  people  in  the 
densest  ignorance,  but  demanded  excessive  and  exorbitant 
fees  for  marriages,  baptisms  and  burials,  so  much  so 
that  many  couples  lived  together  without  marriage  in 
open    defiance   of    church   and   territorial   law,   pleading 


Education  in  New  Mexico 417 

that   they  could  not  afford  to  pay  the   fees  demanded. 
Bishop  Lamy's  vicar  general,  Father  Machebeuf,  thus 
stated  the  matter  in  a  letter : 

The  lack  of  instruction  and  other  helps  has  left  religion  in  a  de- 
plorable condition  in  New  Mexico.  Its  practice  is  almost  entirely 
lost,  and  there  remains  little  but  the  exterior  shell.  With  such  igno- 
rance the  consequent  corruption  can  easily  be  imagined,  and  all  the 
immorality  that  must  flow  from  it. 

As  early  as  possible  Bishop  Lamy  established  Catholic 
day  and  boarding  schools  in  Santa  Fe.  The  American 
newcomers,  in  the  meantime,  while  strongly  in  favour  of 
public  schools,  had  no  power  to  start  them  contrary  to  the 
popular  will,  unless  it  were  done  as  a  gift  to  the  people  by 
some  missionary  society.  And  there  were  many  influen- 
tial Spaniards  and  Mexicans  who  joined  with  the  Catho- 
lics, even  when  they  themselves  were  not  of  that  faith, 
in  opposing  public  education  of  the  common  people. 

Davis,  in  his  El  Gringo,  thus  writes  of  the  condition 
of  education  in  the  territory  in  1856  and  prior  to  that 
time: 

The  standard  of  education  in  New  Mexico  is  at  a  very  low  ebb, 
and  there  is  a  larger  number  of  persons  who  cannot  read  and  write 
than  in  any  other  Territory  in  the  Union.  The  census  of  1850  shows 
a  population  of  61,547  inhabitants,  of  whom  25,089  are  returned  as 
being  unable  to  read  and  write.  I  feel  confident  that  this  ratio  is 
too  low,  and  that  the  number  may  safely  be  set  down  at  one  half 
the  whole  population  who  cannot  read  their  catechisms  and  write 
their  names.  The  number  attending  school  is  given  as  460,  which  is 
about  one  scholar  to  every  one  hundred  and  twenty-five  inhabitants. 
This  exhibits  a  fearful  amount  of  ignorance  among  the  people,  and 
is  enough  to  make  us  question  the  propriety  of  intrusting  them  with 
the  power  to  make  their  own  laws. 

According  to  an  address  delivered  in  Santa  Fe,  in  19 14, 
by  Secretary  of  State  Antonio  Lucero,  there  were  some 
of  the  Spanish-speaking  people  who  were  as  eager  that 


418    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

their  children  should  be  educated  as  were  the  people  of 
New  England.     He  wrote  from  his  own  experience. 

One  good  result  to  the  cause  of  education  that  followed 
the  coming  of  the  Americans  was  that  the  various  denomi- 
nations of  the  Christian  church  sent  pastors  and  teachers 
into  the  territory,  and  denominational  schools  for  Mexi- 
can children  were  established,  that  of  the  Baptists  in  Santa 
Fe,  beginning  as  early  as  1849. 

Episcopalians,  Methodists,  Presbyterians,  and  Congre- 
gationalists  all  established  Mission  Schools,  and  the  first 
University  of  New  Mexico  was  incorporated  under  the 
auspices  of  the  last  named,  in  Santa  Fe,  May  11,  1881. 
Its  first  preparatory  school  was  opened  September  1 1 , 
1 88 1,  and  the  corner-stone  of  YVhitin  Hall,  its  first  perma- 
nent building,  was  laid  October  21,  1882,  "in  the  name 
of  Christian  Education,  in  behalf  of  intellectual  progress 
and  improvement,  in  the  hope  and  trust  that  it  will  be  a 
stronghold  of  intelligence  and  morality,  and  a  bulwark 
against  ignorance  and  vice."  This  Hall  was  completed 
October,  1887,  and  was  mainly  the  gift  of  the  family  of 
John  C.  Whitin,  of  Massachusetts. 

In  1888  a  State  University  was  established  at  Albu- 
querque, a  School  of  Mines  at  Socorro,  and  an  Agri- 
cultural School  at  Las  Cruces,  each  supported  by  a  special 
tax  on  all  the  assessable  property  of  the  territory. 

But  it  was  not  until  1890  that  a  real  advance  was  made, 
in  the  passage  of  a  school  law  worthy  the  name.  Under 
the  governorship  of  L.  Bradford  Prince  a  bill  was  framed 
by  L.  R.  E.  Paullin,  which  included  all  the  features  re- 
quired in  a  modern  school  system.  The  State  Superin- 
tendent of  Public  Instruction  was  to  be  named  by  the 
governor,  and  immediately  on  passage  of  the  law  Amado 
Chaves  was  appointed.  No  better  selection  could  have 
been  made.     Don  Amado  was  a  member  of  one  of  the 


Education  in  New  Mexico 419 

oldest  Spanish  families  of  the  State,  was  respected  and 
honoured  and  eminently  qualified  by  his  suavity  and  tact 
to  overcome  the  prejudices  held  by  many  of  his  people 
against  popular  education.  His  educational  and  adminis- 
trative qualities  were  of  the  highest  order  and  he  un- 
doubtedly laid  the  foundations  of  the  present  educational 
system.  Year  after  year  marked  advance  has  been  made, 
and  while  there  is  yet  much  to  be  desired  New  Mexico 
can  congratulate  itself  that  it  is  in  the  line  of  true  prog- 
ress. 

In  1898  Delegate  Fergusson,  of  New  Mexico,  suc- 
ceeded in  passing  through  Congress  an  act  which  had  a 
most  beneficial  effect  upon  educational  affairs.  It  pro- 
vided that  all  sections  of  school  lands  numbered  16  and  36 
in  every  township  in  the  Territory  could  be  leased  for  the 
support  of  its  public  schools.  Two  townships  were  re- 
served for  the  establishment  of  a  University  of  New  Mex- 
ico, and  exactly  five  thousand  acres,  together  with  all 
saline  lands,  were  granted  for  its  use.  One  hundred  thou- 
sand acres  were  set  aside  for  the  use  of  the  Agricultural 
College. 

Much  needed  efforts  are  now  being  made  to  standardize 
the  rural  schools,  to  demand  higher  qualifications  of  the 
teachers,  and  to  organize  night  —  or  "  moonlight  "  schools 
as  they  are  termed — for  the  benefit  of  illiterate  adults. 
One  county  superintendent  in  1916  reported  sixty  of  these 
schools  established,  with  an  enrolment  of  1,549  adults 
receiving  free  instruction  in  English  and  Spanish. 
Marked  improvement  must  result  from  these  laudable  en- 
deavours. The  earlier  endeavours  in  these  lines  on  the 
part  of  the  teachers  were  purely  voluntary  and  without 
pay,  but  the  legislature  has  now  provided  that  extra  pay 
shall  be  given  to  every  teacher  who  induces  ten  illiterates 
to  enroll  and  receive  certain  instruction.     Little  by  little 


420    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

an  esprit  de  corps  is  being  aroused  among  county  super- 
intendents ;  they  are  being  incited  to  greater  devotion  to 
their  work,  and  to  arouse  a  higher  enthusiasm  for  their 
profession  among  their  teachers.  The  work  of  the  three 
normal  schools  —  the  Normal  University  at  Las  Vegas, 
which,  while  authorized  in  1893,  did  not  confine  itself 
to  purely  normal  work  until  1903  ;  the  Silver  City  Normal, 
established  in  1904;  and  the  Spanish-American  Normal 
at  El  Rito  —  are  all  doing  excellent  work,  which,  under 
the  present  state  superintendent,  Jonathan  H.  Wagner,  is 
rapidly  becoming  more  and  more  standardized. 

The  church  and  private  schools  already  referred  to  are 
still  in  vigorous  operation  and  supplement  in  needed  lines 
the  work  of  the  state  schools. 

Few  outsiders  can  realize  the  obstacles  thrown,  espe- 
cially by  large  taxpayers,  in  the  way  of  those  who  were 
working  for  a  really  effective  school  law.  It  was  not 
until  191 5  that  a  county  unit  law  was  passed  which  gave 
each  county  its  own  school  taxes,  and  two  years  later  an- 
other step  forward  was  taken  in  making  each  county 
competent  to  administer  its  own  school  affairs.  Now, 
with  a  wide-awake  state  superintendent,  and  a  county 
board  appointed  by  the  district  judge  of  which  the  county 
superintendent  is  ex-officio  president,  school  matters  are 
coming  to  the  fore  with  leaps  and  bounds. 

In  addition  to  this  State  Teachers'  Institutes  are  being 
held,  attendance  upon  which  by  every  teacher  in  the  State 
is  compulsory,  and  these  enthusiastic  gatherings  gender 
a  spirit  of  progress  that  is  infectious  and  the  beneficial 
influence  of  which  cannot  be  overestimated. 


CHAPTER  XXVII 

THE    UNIVERSITY    AND    SPECIAL   SCHOOLS   OF 
NEW    MEXICO 

The  development  of  a  high  grade  educational  institu- 
tion demands  adequate  funds,  a  large  population  with 
high  educational  ideals,  together  with  a  board  of  trustees 
of  wisdom  and  vision  to  stand  behind  its  president  and 
faculty  and  further  every  sane  plan  for  its  advancement. 
In  its  early  history  New  Mexico  possessed  neither  funds, 
or  the  ideal  population,  hence  was  not  called  upon  to 
meet  the  latter  needs.  In  1889,  however,  a  bill  was 
passed  by  the  legislature,  creating  the  University  of  New 
Mexico,  to  be  located  at  Albuquerque.  Its  first  years 
were  of  difficulties  and  struggles.  While  a  University 
in  name,  in  fact  it  was  but  a  preparatory  school,  with 
E.  S.  Stover  as  its  first  president.  In  1897,  Dr.  C.  L. 
Herrick,  of  Denison  College,  Ohio,  was  elected  president, 
and  in  1899  the  Hadley  Laboratory  and  a  gymnasium 
were  built.  This  former  building  was  burned  down  in 
1910. 

In  1901  Dr.  William  G.  Tight,  a  geologist,  also  from 
Denison  College,  was  elected  as  successor  to  President 
Herrick  and  served  until  1909.  The  call  to  New  Mexico 
was  very  attractive  to  Dr.  Tight  as  it  seemed  to  open  the 
way  to  a  great,  new  field  for  geological  research.  But 
upon  entering  the  work  of  the  university  and  learning 
its  needs,  he  discovered  that  his  time  was  to  be  largely 
occupied  with  executive  duties,  and  that  it  was  necessary 
for  him  to  sacrifice  much  of  his  professional  scientific 

421 


422    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

work.  Nevertheless,  he  threw  the  vigour  of  his  physical 
and  mental  energy  into  the  larger  interests  of  the  institu- 
tion. In  his  fertile  mind  Dr.  Tight  saw  a  vision  of  a 
greater  university  for  New  Mexico  in  the  future  and  be- 
gan to  conceive  large  plans.  The  grounds  were  laid  out 
with  a  thought  of  permanency,  and  hundreds  of  trees  were 
placed  in  orderly  arrangement  as  a  start  for  a  beautiful 
campus.  Another  policy  pointing  toward  permanency 
was  that  of  uniformity  in  the  style  of  buildings  to  be 
erected,  and  President  Tight  ingeniously  conceived  the 
idea  of  an  Indian  Pueblo  type  of  architecture.  After 
studying  and  photographing  various  buildings  in  Indian 
villages  throughout  New  Mexico,  he  began  to  formulate 
plans  for  a  distinctive  type  of  university  buildings,  choos- 
ing the  style  from  the  native  soil,  instead  of  borrowing 
ideas  from  foreign  lands.  A  power  house  was  first  con- 
structed on  the  new  plan,  and  then  dormitories  —  one 
for  women,  named  Hokona,  the  Indian  significance  being 
virgin  butterfly;  and  one  for  men,  called  Kwataka,  or 
man-eaglet.  The  Administration  Building,  a  large  three- 
story  structure  and  the  first  building  on  the  campus,  was 
remodeled  on  the  lines  of  the  adopted  Pueblo  plan,  and 
an  assembly  room  added  and  designated  Rodey  Hall,  in 
recognition  of  the  valuable  services  rendered  the  Uni- 
versity by  B.  S.  Rodey  in  the  Territorial  Legislature  and 
the  Federal  Congress. 

In  1909  Dr.  E.  D.  McQueen  Gray  was  chosen  to  suc- 
ceed President  Tight  and  served  until  19 12.  The  grant- 
ing of  statehood  to  New  Mexico  in  191 1,  and  the  natural 
forward  impulse  given  to  all  its  institutions  at  that  time 
led  to  a  decided  effort  at  a  forward  movement  for  the  uni- 
versity. The  people  of  Albuquerque  were  aroused  as 
never  before  and  began  to  demand  an  enlarged  and  more 
active  campaign  of  higher  education.     Accordingly  Dr. 


The  University  and  Special  Schools    423 

David  Ross  Boyd,  who  had  successfully  piloted  the  Uni- 
versity of  Oklahoma  from  its  foundation  until  it  became 
recognized  as  one  of  the  well  established  institutions  of 
the  West,  and  who  had  reorganized  and  standardized  the 
missionary  schools  of  the  Presbyterian  church  through- 
out the  United  States,  was  called  to  the  presidency. 
Upon  election  President  Boyd  began  to  make  a  careful 
study  of  the  general  educational  situation  in  New  Mexico 
and  the  needs  of  the  university.  One  of  the  first  things 
to  demand  attention  was  the  securing  of  a  larger  campus 
for  immediate  and  future  needs,  while  land  could  be  pur- 
chased at  a  reasonable  price.  By  persistent  effort,  the 
campus  has  been  extended  from  25  acres,  when  President 
Boyd  assumed  office,  to  a  tract  of  over  340  acres.  This 
additional  land,  which  is  well  located,  was  purchased  at 
an  exceedingly  favourable  figure,  and  was  secured  none 
too  soon,  as  adjacent  land  has  already  more  than  doubled 
in  value.  With  a  view  to  unity  in  the  development  of 
plans  for  the  greater  university,  the  administration  se- 
cured the  services  of  Mr.  Walter  Burleigh  Griffin  of 
Chicago,  a  landscape  architect  and  expert  in  city  planning. 
Mr.  Griffin  had  won  the  $10,000  prize  in  a  contest  of  142 
architects  from  different  parts  of  the  world,  for  plans  to 
be  used  in  the  construction  of  the  new  capital  city  of  the 
confederate  states  of  Australia  at  Canberra,  and  had  then 
been  employed  to  lay  out  the  grounds  of  the  new  federal 
district,  and  superintend  the  construction  of  the  beauti- 
ful city  of  Canberra.  Mr.  Griffin  visited  the  University 
to  study  the  situation  and  environment  and  was  enthusi- 
astic over  the  possibilities  of  developing  the  large  campus 
and  constructing  buildings  in  a  modified  form  of  the 
unique  Pueblo  type  of  architecture.  His  plans  are  now 
in  the  hands  of  the  Regents  and  President  Boyd,  for  the 
permanent  arrangement  and  beautification  of  the  grounds, 


424    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

and  the  attractive  grouping  of  new  buildings.  The  rap- 
idly growing  chemistry  department  called  for  the  first 
building  under  the  new  plans.  It  is  a  plain,  substantial 
structure,  covering  a  ground  space  of  165  feet  by  50  feet, 
with  the  interior  marked  by  the  most  modern  arrange- 
ment, and  latest  equipment  for  laboratory  work.  The 
next  building  will  be  for  general  science,  and  each  depart- 
ment will  form  its  own  architectural  unit,  in  accordance 
with  the  general  plan. 

With  President  Boyd's  administration  have  come  some 
important  changes  in  the  University  curriculum.  A  be- 
ginning has  been  made  in  university  extension  and  corre- 
spondence work  in  order  to  accommodate  those  who  may 
seek  advancement,  but  who  are  unable  to  attend  the  Uni- 
versity. The  department  of  home  economics  has  been 
introduced,  with  excellent  up-to-date  electrical  equipment. 
A  chair  of  theoretical  and  applied  psychology  has  been 
added  to  the  College  of  Arts,  Philosophy,  and  Sciences. 
In  view  of  the  growing  importance  of  our  national  rela- 
tions with  the  Latin-American  republics,  courses  in  Span- 
ish history  have  been  provided  and  greater  emphasis  has 
been  placed  upon  the  teaching  of  the  Spanish  language. 
A  Course  in  Commerce,  under  the  direction  of  the  depart- 
ment of  economics,  has  been  established  on  a  university 
basis,  to  take  up  the  larger  problems  of  business,  and  com- 
mercial relations  with  other  countries.  In  addition,  sev- 
eral full  courses  in  music  have  been  organized  in  the  Col- 
lege of  Fine  Arts. 

For  eight  years  Dr.  Boyd  has  had  his  hand  on  the  helm 
and  has  seen  the  institution  grow  in  power  and  influence. 
To  use  his  own  words  : 

While  pursuing  plans  for  the  future,  the  University  is  adhering 
faithfully  to  certain  very  definite  standards  in  its  daily  work.  These 
standards  are  high  and  at  the  masthead  we  have  fixed  the  slogan, 


The  University  and  Special  Schools    425 

"  Thoroughness  in  teaching."  The  faculty  of  this  University  has 
been  chosen  with  first  consideration  to  the  ability  and  willingness  and 
eagerness  of  each  member  to  teach.  Teaching  the  young  men  and 
women  who  come  here  is  the  first  duty  of  this  institution  and  every 
member  of  the  faculty  has  become  thoroughly  imbued  with  that 
principle  and  all  that  it  implies  in  careful,  thoughtful,  painstaking 
work  with  and  for  the  individual  student.  To  learn  his  needs,  his 
weaknesses,  his  tendencies  and  special  adaptabilities  and  to  make 
best  use  of  all,  in  so  far  as  can  be  done,  to  aid  each  one  to  gain 
the  fullest  advantage  from  his  opportunity.  We  have  in  the  faculty 
men  whose  attainments  in  scholarship  and  scientific  research  are 
notable.  While  proud  of  their  attainments  and  of  recognition  which 
they  receive  from  time  to  time,  we  regard  these  things  as  secondary 
to  their  enthusiasm  and  ability  for  the  every-day  work  of  teaching. 

The  location  of  the  university  is  on  a  mesa,  about  a 
mile  east  of  Albuquerque,  overlooking  the  city  and  the 
wide  valley  of  the  Rio  Grande.  It  is  a  beautiful,  inspir- 
ing spot,  though  occasionally  sandstorms  sweep  over  it. 
These  latter  give  the  "  grit  "  that  have  sent  New  Mexican 
University  Volunteers  "  over  the  top  "  with  a  marked  zip 
and  enthusiasm.  The  perfectly  pure  air,  the  clear  sky, 
the  bracing  atmosphere  are  not  only  conducive  to  the  best 
of  health ;  they  are  stimulating  and  invigorating  to  the 
highest  degree.  The  student  body  is  worthy  all  that 
Nature  and  the  State  is  doing  for  them.  Both  youths 
and  maidens  are  healthful-appearing  in  body  and  mind, 
exuberant  in  spirit  and  eager  for  work.  The  future  has 
a  right  to  demand  and  expect  much  of  them,  and  it  will 
not  be  disappointed. 

In  addition  to  the  university  there  are  three  other  state 
schools  deserving  of  more  than  passing  mention. 

Military  Institute.  This  was  created  in  1895  with  a 
building  appropriation  of  $15,000.  It  is  located  at  Ros- 
well,  in  Chaves  County. 

It  was  opened  for  students  in  1898.  For  the  first  year 
it  was  maintained  chiefly  as  a  local  high  school  with  mili- 


426    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

tary  instruction.  In  1899  the  board  of  regents  decided  to 
make  it  a  strictly  military  school  requiring  local  as  well 
as  foreign  students  to  live  in  garrison  and  remain  under 
military  discipline  at  all  times.  This  was  a  great  venture 
and  caused  the  school  a  great  struggle  for  a  year  or  two. 
However,  the  efficiency  of  the  school  was  apparent  to  the 
people  and  students  began  to  come  in  large  numbers. 
The  State  made  increased  appropriations  and  new  build- 
ings were  erected,  until  at  present  the  barracks  and  aca- 
demic buildings  and  mess  hall  are  considered  to  be  the 
finest  group  of  academic  buildings  in  the  Southwest. 
The  plant  is  now  valued  at  about  four  hundred  thousand 
dollars.  The  average  enrolment  for  the  past  ten  years 
is  one  hundred  and  seventy-four  cadets.  Last  session 
three  hundred  and  twelve  were  matriculated  and  during 
the  coming  year  a  corps  of  four  hundred  is  expected. 

In  1909  the  War  Department  designated  the  New  Mex- 
ico Military  Institute  as  a  "  Distinguished  Institution," 
since  which  time  it  has  annually  received  the  highest  rat- 
ing awarded  to  military  schools  by  inspecting  officers. 
Graduates  of  the  New  Mexico  Military  Institute  have  for 
a  number  of  years  been  received  as  officers  in  the  army. 
During  the  war  with  Germany,  the  Institute  supplied  ap- 
proximately three  hundred  and  six  graduates  and  ex- 
cadets.  Three  hundred  of  them  held  commissions,  from 
lieutenants  to  majors.  The  Institute  has  a  faculty  at  the 
present  time  of  eighteen  college  men.  One  member  of 
the  faculty  is  detailed  by  the  War  Department.  The  su- 
perintendent, Colonel  James  W.  Wilson,  has  been  with 
the  school  since  it  was  first  opened,  and  many  of  the 
officers  and  instructors  have  been  on  duty  with  this  insti- 
tution for  a  number  of  years. 

School  of  Mines.  As  its  name  implies  this  school  was 
established  by  the  legislature  in  1889  to  give  special  train- 


The  University  and  Special  Schools    427 


ing  to  those  who  might  ultimately  aid  in  the  development 
of  the  mines  of  the  State.  It  offers  courses  in  mining, 
engineering,  metallurgical  engineering,  geological  engi- 
neering, and  civil  engineering,  leading  to  degrees  in  each 
of  the  courses  offered. 

Being  located  at  Socorro  it  is  in  the  heart  of  an  ex- 
tensive mining  region,  some  of  the  oldest  and  most  fa- 
mous mines  of  the  State  being  within  easy  reach.  Here 
the  student  may  come  in  close  touch  with  actual  mining 
processes  and  the  reduction  of  the  ores  at  a  dozen  or 
more  different  mines,  where  gold,  silver,  copper,  etc.,  are 
continuously  being  produced. 

The  ground  immediately  adjacent  to  the  School  of 
Mines  includes  irrigable  land,  plateaus  and  mountain 
formations,  all  affording  an  excellent  field  for  practice  in 
surveying,  the  laying  out  of  railroads  and  irrigating 
canals,  topography,  mine  engineering  and  geology,  so  that 
students  can  be  prepared  at  the  very  door  of  the  school 
in  those  branches  which  usually  require  tedious  excur- 
sions from  most  other  schools.  Almost  the  entire  geo- 
logical column  is  here  exposed. 

College  of  Agriculture  and  Mechanic  Arts.  This  col- 
lege is  located  near  Las  Cruces,  in  the  heart  of  the  fertile 
Mesilla  Valley.  Both  the  Federal  government  and  the 
State  supply  its  funds,  principally  the  former.,  as  it  is 
largely  engaged  in  experimental  work,  in  teaching  service 
and  Extension  Service.  It  is  doing  great  and  good  work 
and  seeks  the  benefit  in  a  direct  way  of  every  citizen  of 
the  State. 


CHAPTER  XXVIII 

THE    ART    MUSEUM    OF    SANTA    FE 
DEDICATION    ADDRESS    BY    HON.    FRANK    SPRINGER 

In  the  address  given  by  the  Hon.  Frank  Springer  at 
the  dedication  of  the  Museum  in  Santa  Fe  there  is  so  much 
of  history  and  philosophy,  couched  in  terms  that  entitle 
it  to  rank  as  literature,  that  it  is  a  regret  it  cannot  be 
here  reproduced  in  its  entirety.  As  few  elisions  have 
been  made  as  possible,  and  in  every  case  with  care  to  pre- 
serve all  the  chief  thoughts  of  the  address,  and  its  con- 
tinuity. It  must  be  remembered  that  the  museum  was 
opened  in  November,  19 17,  while  we  were  strenuously 
engaged  in  waging  war  with  Germany. 

The  question  has  been  asked  whether,  in  view  of  the  exacting  con- 
ditions of  war  which  necessarily  claim  our  paramount  interest  and 
attention,  it  is  an  appropriate  thing  to  hold  a  meeting  like  this,  and 
celebrate  an  event  which  appears  to  relate  solely  to  the  arts  of 
Peace.  This  appearance,  however,  is  to  a  certain  extent  misleading; 
for  while  the  methods  which  are  here  pursued  are  those  of  Peace,  the 
researches  themselves  embrace  all  phases  of  human  events.  The 
meaning  of  war,  its  influence  upon  the  progress  of  our  race,  and  its 
results  as  measured  by  the  rise  and  decadence  of  peoples  and  the 
ultimate  fate  of  nations,  are  no  less  vital  subjects  of  inquiry  than 
those  which  relate  to  the  less  tragic  side  of  life.  Therefore  there  is 
a  definite  connection  between  the  two  apparently  diverse  fields  of 
interest. 

But  the  matter  has  a  far  deeper  significance  than  this,  and  a  mo- 
ment's reflection  will  show  that  to  the  question  here  propounded 
there  can  be  but  one  answer.  In  every  nation  involved  in  this  war 
the  devotees  of  Science  and  of  Art,  while  giving  freely  of  their 
brain  and  their  blood  in  the  service  to  which  their  allegiance  called 
them,  have  also  believed  it  equally  their  duty  to  keep  alive  those 

428 


'The    Cathedral   of    the    Desert:"   Museum    and 

Auditorium,  Santa  Fe. 

From  a  Painting  made  expressly  for  this  work  by  Carlos   Vicrra. 


The  Art  Museum  of  Santa  Fe        429 

scientific  and  artistic  activities  which  make  for  human  enlighten- 
ment. As  one  foreign  correspondent  wrote  me,  "  we  must  keep  the 
flag  of  Science  flying."  Another  writer,  for  whose  breadth  of  vision 
I  have  a  profound  respect,  says  of  this :  "  In  the  warring  countries 
of  Europe  every  effort  is  made  to  keep  alive  the  sacred  flame  in  the 
temples  of  pure  Science.  Academies  meet,  journals  are  published, 
researches  are  continued  —  not  from  any  indifference  to  the  events 
going  on  around  them,  but  to  preserve,  so  far  as  may  be,  the  habit 
of  mind  which  rises  above  the  dust  of  conflict,  and  looks  toward 
the  future  of  mankind." 

Taking  this  fine  sentence  as  a  beacon  light  and  guide,  it  becomes 
entirely  clear  that  the  ceremonies  in  which  we  are  now  engaged  are 
not  only  fit  and  proper,  but  that  their  observance  is  a  sacred  duty 
which  we  owe  to  this  and  future  generations.  The  only  difference 
which  war  should  make,  is  to  give  to  them  a  greater  solemnity  and 
a  deeper  meaning.  The  world  is  facing  the  question  whether  modern 
civilization  is  to  survive  or  perish ;  whether  it  shall  endure  the  trials 
which  beset  it  now,  and  remain  the  dominant  influence  in  human 
affairs,  or  whether  it  shall  go  down  before  the  fiery  blast  in  which 
the  forces  of  man  and  nature  are  harnessed  for  purposes  of  destruc- 
tion, leaving  only  a  mighty  ruin  to  mark  the  most  stupendous  tragedy 
of  all  time.  Upon  this  momentous  issue  the  voice  of  history  ad- 
monishes us  in  tones  of  solemn  warning. 

It  is  a  thrilling  moment  in  the  lives  of  men  when  dreams  come 
true.  Not  only  is  it  so  to  those  who  dream  the  dreams,  but  in  a 
larger  sense  are  such  moments  often  big  with  the  fate  of  peoples 
and  the  progress  of  mankind.  .  .  . 

It  is  because  the  Morses,  the  Edisons,  the  Bells,  and  the  Marconis 
dreamed  and  wrought  with  unfaltering  courage  until  they  made  their 
dreams  come  true,  that  we  of  this  age  can  send  our  thoughts  through 
empty  space ;  that  continents  can  talk  with  each  other ;  and  that  we 
can  transmit  to  those  who  shall  come  after  us,  not  only  our  thoughts, 
but  the  sound  of  our  voices  as  well.  And  so  it  is  with  many  another 
case,  in  which  the  impossibility  of  to-day  becomes  the  familiar  fact 
of  to-morrow. 

It  is  such  a  moment,  modest  though  it  be  by  comparison  with  the 
examples  I  have  cited,  that  we  are  here  to  celebrate  to-night.  This 
commanding  structure  —  an  edifice  which  in  its  massive  grandeur, 
its  majestic  simplicity,  and  its  historic  significance,  thrills  all  be- 
holders with  a  new  sensation  —  rises  before  us  as  a  thing  well  done. 
And  it  will  stand,  for  this  and  future  generations,  as  an  imperishable 
monument  to  the  enlightened  public  spirit  of  the  people  of  this  young 
State.     We  admire  it;  we  rejoice  in  it;  we  are  proud  of  it  for  what 


430    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

it  is  and  for  what  it  means ;  and  we  feel  enriched  by  a  sense  of 
something  truly  great  accomplished  by  ourselves.  Nevertheless,  this 
splendid  reality  is  but  the  realization  of  a  dream. 

Something  has  been  said,  in  a  personal  sense,  touching  the  credit 
for  the  creation  of  this  great  monument.  But  its  successful  achieve- 
ment is  not  to  be  deemed  the  work  of  any  individual.  It  is  due  to 
the  united  effort  of  many  people  of  this  commonwealth  —  especially 
to  the  broad-minded  liberality  of  the  Legislature,  which  authorized 
its  construction;  to  the  people  of  Santa  Fe,  through  their  Boards  of 
Education  and  County  Commissioners,  who  provided  the  site,  and 
to  her  noble  women,  who  stand  for  all  that  is  fine  and  good  in  this 
community;  to  the  persons,  residents  of  or  interested  in  the  State, 
who  contributed  the  additional  funds  required  for  its  completion ; 
and  to  the  Builder,  through  whose  genius  it  has  arisen  from  the 
earth. 

To  this  statement,  however,  there  must  be  one  exception.  Such 
an  achievement  involves  more  than  the  hewing  of  timber  or  the 
laying  of  bricks.  Behind  these  must  be  the  conception,  and  the  driv- 
ing force  to  push  it  forward.  In  ancient  Egypt  and  Assyria  pyra- 
mids and  temples  arose  at  the  monarch's  nod,  out  of  the  blood  and 
sweat  of  multitudes,  at  a  cost  in  human  misery  only  exceeded  by 
that  of  war.  But  in  these  times  the  force  which  avails  is  not  the 
lash  or  the  goad,  but  is  that  of  enlightened  public  sentiment,  in- 
spired and  led  by  those  who  chiefly  think  for  that  public.  And  if 
we  trace  the  history  of  such  events  as  this  to  their  real  beginnings, 
it  will  be  found  that  always  they  are  the  culmination  of  a  series  of 
efforts  initiated  by  some  one  of  prophetic  vision  and  inborn  leader- 
ship. 

Of  this  rule  the  present  case  is  a  good  example.  And  to  better 
explain  what  I  mean,  it  will  be  profitable  to  take  a  brief  retrospect 
of  the  activities  in  southwestern  Archaeology  leading  up  to  the 
state  of  public  interest  which  makes  an  event  like  this  possible. 
These  will  fall  readily  into  three  epochs,  almost  comparable  to  the 
great  periods  of  general  intellectual  history:  First  —  Pioneer  scien- 
tific investigation ;  Second  —  Vandalism,  marked  by  indifference, 
neglect  and  destruction;  Third  —  The  Renaissance  —  the  rise  of 
Systematic  Research. 

The  first  thoroughly  scientific  study  of  southwestern  Archaeology 
was  made  by  William  H.  Holmes,  in  connection  with  the  govern- 
ment surveys  under  Hayden  in  1874  and  5.  He  has  never  found 
time  enough  since  to  stop  working,  and  as  the  head  of  the  division 
of  Anthropology  in  the  Smithsonian  Institution  and  the  honoured 
Chairman  of  the  Managing  Committee  of  the  School  of  American 
Research,  he  is  still  the  busiest  man  of  either.     He  explored  the 


The  Art  Museum  of  Santa  Fe        431 

Southwest,  its  mountains,  its  canyons  and  its  trails,  not  only  for 
traces  of  ancient  man,  but  also  for  the  still  more  ancient  works  of 
Nature  herself.  And  to  his  untiring  search  they  yielded  up  their 
choicest  secrets  —  among  them  that  of  perpetual  youth.  We  know 
that  he  tramped  them  good  and  hard,  for  his  tracks  may  still  be 
found  throughout  an  area  of  six  thousand  square  miles  in  southern 
Colorado  and  Utah,  northern  Arizona  and  New  Mexico,  traversed 
by  him  in  those  early  years ;  and  when  to  this  day  we  wish  for 
fundamental  knowledge  concerning  the  Cliff  houses  of  the  Mancos, 
the  La  Plata,  and  the  Mesa  Verde,  and  other  prehistoric  remains 
from  there  down  to  Abiquiu  in  New  Mexico,  we  may  find  it  all,  with 
graphic  illustration  and  accurate  scientific  interpretation,  in  the  chap- 
ters prepared  by  Holmes  for  the  volumes  of  the  Hayden  Survey. 
And  the  marks  of  his  hammer  can  yet  be  seen  along  the  great  Jura- 
Trias  and  Cretaceous  exposures  of  the  San  Juan  and  Grand  Canyon 
regions,  where  he  made  the  fine  geological  and  topographical  sketches 
contained  in  the  same  Hayden  Reports.  .  .  . 

After  Holmes  came  the  more  definite  researches  of  Adolph  Bande- 
lier,  from  1880  to  1890,  under  the  auspices  of  the  Archaeological 
Institute  of  America.  Although  he  was  for  many  years  a  resident 
of  Santa  Fe,  where  much  of  his  work  was  done  and  most  of  his 
reports  prepared,  probably  not  six  persons  out  of  the  entire  popu- 
lation of  the  city  realized  that  this  quiet  and  unpretentious  worker 
was  engaged  in  producing  a  series  of  volumes  that  are  among  the 
most  important  ever  written  about  the  Southwest.  His  reports  are 
the  indispensable  text  books  that  every  beginner  carries  into  the 
field  to  this  day.  His  explorations  included  the  whole  Rio  Grande 
drainage,  southern  Arizona  and  California.  Bandelier  was  the  pio- 
neer in  intensive  archive  research  on  the  Southwest ;  and  his  word- 
pictures  of  the  Cliff  Dwellers  and  their  remains,  both  in  the  domain 
of  Science  and  of  Fiction,  served  to  draw  attention  to  these  mys- 
terious antiquities  here  in  our  midst,  and  their  relation  to  the  sur- 
viving aboriginal  populations,  with  a  clarity  and  vividness  that  have 
never  been  excelled. 

The  two  men  I  have  mentioned  are  the  outstanding  figures  in  the 
earliest  archaeological  work  of  the  Southwest.  They  were  followed 
by  Fewkes,  for  the  Hemenway  Expedition,  and  later  for  the  United 
States  Government  —  the  first  systematic  excavator  in  the  Southwest. 
His  main  field  in  the  early  days  was  Arizona,  but  in  later  years  he 
has  covered  practically  the  entire  region. 

These  three  pioneers  laid  the  foundation  for  all  future  archaeologi- 
cal work  in  the  Southwest.  Between  them  they  established  the  es- 
sential activities  of  the  science :  —  exploration,  excavation,  archive 
investigation,  and  the  study  of  the  surviving  peoples. 


432    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

Nevertheless,  their  published  works,  chiefly  buried  in  ponderous 
volumes  of  government  reports  which  few  people  read,  were  to  a 
great  extent  soon  forgotten.  And  to  the  majority  of  the  people  of 
New  Mexico,  who  of  all  others  were  most  vitally  interested  in  these 
investigations,  the  records  of  them  remained  as  unexplored  as  the 
regions  to  which  they  related  had  been  before.  After  a  time,  how- 
ever, attention  to  the  relics  of  antiquity  was  aroused  by  the  dis- 
covery that  they  had  a  commercial  value,  and  under  that  stimulus 
digging  began  afresh  with  a  vigour  never  previously  known.  Be- 
ginning with  the  years  just  preceding  the  World's  Fair  at  Chicago, 
and  lasting  approximately  a  decade  and  a  half,  an  epoch  of  van- 
dalism reigned.  For  the  purpose  of  securing  enormous  collections 
for  exhibition  and  sale,  the  ruins  of  Colorado,  Utah,  Arizona,  and 
New  Mexico  were  looted  without  restraint.  Not  only  so,  but  in 
the  rush  to  obtain  specimens  there  was  wholesale  destruction  of  the 
ancient  works  of  architecture.  Of  preservation  there  was  no 
thought,  except  to  preserve  the  secret  of  the  finds  from  possible 
rival  despoilers.  Still  less  was  there  any  pretense  of  scientific  record 
of  the  occurrence  of  the  objects  removed.  It  is  important  to  note 
that  this  mercenary  activity  was  not  confined  to  private  individuals. 
Expeditions  were  organized  for  its  prosecution,  and  there  was 
marked  indifference,  if  not  actual  participation  in  some  of  these 
depredations,  by  museums  seeking  to  fill  their  cases,  and  ignoring 
the  higher  motives  of  scientific  research. 

While  the  reign  of  the  unregulated  specimen  hunter  was  yet  in 
force,  there  came  into  this  field  a  young  man  by  whom  the  works  of 
Holmes,  Bandelier,  and  Fewkes  had  not  been  overlooked.  The 
musty  volumes  of  public  documents  in  which  their  reports  were 
contained  had  for  him  no  forbidding  aspect,  but  to  his  active  and 
inquisitive  mind  their  perusal  opened  up  the  vista  of  a  great  sub- 
ject, fit  to  become  a  lifetime  work;  and  to  this  work  he  resolved  to 
devote  the  energies  of  his  best  years.  He  saw  the  possibilities  which 
lay  in  the  little  known  area  of  pre-historic  occupation  in  northern 
New  Mexico,  and  he  entered  upon  its  study  with  the  zeal  of  a  scien- 
tific enthusiast.  The  exploration  of  these  remains  of  a  vanished 
culture,  the  preservation  of  the  facts  concerning  them  by  authentic 
records,  and  the  bringing  of  them  to  public  attention,  became  to  him 
a  fixed  and  definite  purpose;  and  from  that  purpose  he  has  never 
deviated  to  this  hour. 

He  came  from  a  neighbouring  State,  where  he  was  already  a 
teacher  of  teachers,  to  teach  us  about  our  own  country  many  things 
we  knew  not  of ;  and  he  was  soon  annexed  by  our  aspiring  young- 
old  commonwealth  and  placed  at  the  head  of  one  of  its  leading  edu- 
cational institutions.     He  became  the  inspirer  of  others,  not  only  of 


The  Art  Museum  of  Santa  Fe        433 

his  students  and  the  teachers  under  him,  who  gave  up  their  vacations 
to  become  volunteer  aids  to  his  researches,  but  of  men  of  affairs  and 
position  as  well  —  among  them  the  Chairman  of  the  Public  Lands 
Committee  of  the  United  States  House  of  Representatives,  who 
came  out  here  at  his  invitation,  camped  and  climbed  with  him 
among  the  trails  and  canyons  of  the  Pajarito  Plateau,  until  he  veri- 
fied the  facts  which  had  been  reported  as  to  the  importance  of  these 
remains,  and  the  necessity  for  their  protection.  To  this  end  a 
sharp  campaign  was  begun  in  the  latter  part  of  1903.  The  history 
of  that  campaign  is  largely  an  unwritten  story,  for  the  most  part 
buried  in  the  archives  of  the  executive  departments  at  Washington. 
But  it  is  within  my  personal  knowledge  that  at  the  request  of  this 
same  Chairman  our  young  archaeologist  prepared,  and  by  his  per- 
sistent energy  was  largely  instrumental  in  securing  the  passage  of, 
the  law  which  brought  to  the  protection  of  these  relics  of  vanished 
peoples  the  strong  hand  of  the  Federal  Government,  and  brought  to 
an  end  the  reign  of  vandalism  which  forms  the  second  epoch  of  our 
brief  historic  survey. 

The  credit  for  inaugurating  the  new  period  which  succeeded  it  be- 
longs to  a  local  institution,  the  Normal  University  at  Las  Vegas. 
From  the  time  it  opened  its  doors  in  October,  1898,  its  Board  of 
Regents  and  faculty,  under  the  inspiration  and  leadership  of  this 
teacher  of  teachers,  then  its  President,  held  that  original  research 
was  a  vital  factor  in  the  education  of  every  individual  —  preemi- 
nently so  in  the  education  of  teachers.  Accordingly  it  emphasized 
such  research,  especially  in  the  sciences  bearing  immediately  upon 
life  and  culture.  Its  work  in  Biology  and  Anthropology  was  of  an 
order  for  which  its  resources  would  have  been  wholly  inadequate, 
had  they  not  been  supplemented  by  the  energy  and  infectious  en- 
thusiasm of  a  master  spirit.  In  connection  with  the  latter,  the 
wealth  of  local  New  Mexican  material  was  fully  recognized.  Lec- 
ture courses  in  southwestern  archaeology  were  offered ;  the  New 
Mexico  Archaeological  Society  was  organized  at  Santa  Fe  in  the 
fall  of  1898;  in  the  summer  of  1899  the  exploration  and  excavation 
of  the  Cliff  Dwellings  of  the  Pajarito  Plateau  were  commenced 
under  the  President,  aided  by  a  class  of  ten  students  and  members 
of  the  faculty,  they  paying,  as  he  did,  their  own  personal  expenses. 
The  work  was  hard,  and  water  often  scarce  in  some  of  those  arid 
places,  where  once  great  people  lived  and  thrived ;  but  doubtless  to 
those  young  devotees,  stimulated  by  the  sensation  of  new  discoveries, 
it  seemed  better  than  red  Falernian  wine.  With  the  meager  funds 
that  could  be  furnished  by  the  institution,  and  the  labours  of  volun- 
teers like  these,  the  work  went  on  during  the  summer  vacations, 
every  year  for  five  years.     During  that  time  the  first  authentic  sur- 


434    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

vey  and  map  of  the  region  were  made ;  extensive  representative  col- 
lections were  secured ;  prospecting  trenches  were  dug,  and  sketches 
based  upon  them  were  prepared  to  indicate  the  probable  form,  size 
and  position  of  the  more  important  communal  buildings,  which  subse- 
quent investigations  have  fully  verified.  Evidence  of  those  re- 
searches, in  the  shape  of  typical  collections  and  the  original  maps 
and  drawings  made  at  that  time,  now  form  a  part  of  the  records  of 
the  Museum  of  New  Mexico,  and  may  be  seen  in  the  various  rooms 
of  the  Old  Palace. 

With  these  expeditions  of  the  Normal  University,  during  the  first 
five  years  of  its  existence,  was  ushered  in  the  third  epoch  of  our 
retrospective  sketch  —  that  of  Systematic  Research. 

The  work  thus  done  attracted  the  attention  of  the  Interior  Depart- 
ment and  the  Smithsonian  Institution.  Inspectors  were  sent  out 
from  Washington  to  report  on  the  New  Mexico  ruins,  and  the  Nor- 
mal University  became  the  recognized  local  advisor  of  the  Govern- 
ment in  all  its  preliminary  investigations.  Some  of  the  pamphlets 
of  information  furnished  by  it,  published  in  1904,  ran  to  tens  of 
thousands  of  copies.  By  means  of  all  these  activities  an  assemblage 
of  facts  was  made  for  presentation  to  Congress,  which  led  directly  to 
the  enactment  of  the  law  for  the  preservation  of  American  antiqui- 
ties in  1906. 

Meanwhile  our  archaeologist,  always  himself  a  doer,  at  intervals 
between  his  doings  dreamed  dreams  as  well.  And  as  he  rested 
among  the  caves  of  Pajaritan  cliffs  —  attended,  perchance,  by  the 
ghostly  company  of  Pajaritan  sages  —  looking  up  to  the  blue  firma- 
ment, and  inquiring  of  the  stars  which  had  shone  on  them  and  him 
alike,  there  came  to  his  mind  visions  of  comprehensive  and  reverent 
studies  of  those  forgotten  peoples  who  lived,  strove,  and  perished 
before  our  time  upon  this  continent;  of  some  kind  of  institution 
located  in  our  midst  by  which  such  studies  might  be  fostered  and 
directed ;  whose  activities,  perhaps  centering  in  and  radiating  from 
this  ancient  capital,  might  become  of  continental  extent;  and  in 
which  the  evidence  of  these  little  known  things  might  be  brought 
within  convenient  reach,  and  knowledge  of  them  diffused,  for  the 
enlightenment  and  benefit  of  all  the  people.  A  year  of  exploration 
in  Mexico,  under  the  auspices  of  the  Archaeological  Institute,  con- 
firmed his  impressions  as  to  the  immensity  of  the  unworked  field 
which  lay  open  for  research  within  our  own  continent.  These  vari- 
ous labours  had  by  this  time  gained  for  him  the  confidence  and 
powerful  support  of  President  Kelsey  of  the  Archaeological  Institute 
of  America,  Miss  Alice  C.  Fletcher  of  the  American  Committee  of 
the  Institute,  and  Dr.  Charles  F.  Lummis,  a  member  of  its  Governing 
Council,  which  resulted  in  his  appointment  as  Director  of  American 


The  Art  Museum  of  Santa  Fe        435 

Archaeology  in  1906.  And  to  the  unwavering  and  active  cooperation 
of  these  four  persons,  backed  by  the  encouragement  of  that  great 
and  broad-minded  scientist,  Professor  F.  W.  Putnam  of  Harvard, 
more  than  to  any  other  influence,  is  due  the  position  of  American 
Archaeology  to-day  as  a  truly  national  science.  The  necessity  of 
systematically  organized  effort  toward  its  effectual  prosecution  be- 
came clearly  apparent  to  these  far-sighted  co-labourers,  and  by 
their  efforts  there  was  brought  to  the  Science  of  Archaeology  in 
America,  and  the  larger  concept  growing  out  of  it,  the  Science  of 
Man,  what  they  never  had  before  —  organization  and  a  definite  pur- 
pose. 

Thus  was  born  the  idea  of  an  Institution  for  research  of  this 
nature  in  laboratory  and  field,  where  students  of  Archaeology  and 
related  Sciences  might  be  directed  and  trained  for  original  works 
of  their  own ;  and  in  1907  the  establishment  of  the  School  of  Ameri- 
can Archaeology,  now  called  the  School  of  American  Research,  was 
ordered  by  the  Council  of  the  Institute.  But  the  definite  conception 
of  such  a  school,  by  the  common  and  willing  consent  of  all  con- 
nected with  it,  must  be  credited  to  the  learned  and  gracious  lady 
whose  name  I  have  mentioned,  who  was  for  the  first  five  years  the 
active  Chairman  of  its  Managing  Committee,  and  who  is  now,  and 
for  uncounted  years  to  come  will  be,  its  Chairman  emeritus. 

Through  the  influence  of  the  newly-appointed  director  solely,  and 
against  the  competition  of  other  localities  having  much  more  to 
offer  in  the  way  of  material  support,  the  seat  of  this  School,  as  the 
headquarters  of  organized  archaeological  research  on  the  American 
continent,  was  located  at  Santa  Fe.  Under  the  infection  of  his 
enthusiasm,  men  in  other  walks  of  life  who  knew  nothing  of  Archae- 
ology, or  if  they  knew  entertained  it  as  the  curious  theme  of  an 
idle  moment,  discovered  in  its  objects  something  worthy  of  serious 
thought,  and  willingly  enrolled  in  the  goodly  company  of  dreamers 
and  doers  under  his  leadership.  By  his  efforts,  aided  by  those  who 
caught  their  inspiration  from  him,  the  Museum  of  New  Mexico  was 
created  upon  a  far-reaching  plan  of  cooperation  with  the  School  of 
American  Archaeology,  such  as  would  give  to  it  a  nation-wide  im- 
portance and  prestige,  and  would  make  this  city  the  official  seat  from 
which  its  work  should  be  carried  from  time  to  time  into  other 
American  fields.  And  thus  the  vision  of  the  dreamer  became  a 
crowning  fact. 

The  same  controlling  personality  has  guided  the  subsequent  course 
of  these  institutions;  their  work  now  embraces  the  continent;  their 
names  have  become  synonyms  for  practical  efficiency  and  results 
achieved;  and  he  who  directed  may  well  be  content  to  let  the  results 
speak  for  him.     The  project  for  an  exhibit  at  San  Diego  to  illus- 


436    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

trate  the  whole  Science  of  Man  —  historic,  prehistoric,  artistic  and 
biologic  —  which  has  gained  the  unbounded  admiration  of  the  most 
eminent  men  of  this  nation,  when  first  presented  by  him  at  a  meet- 
ing of  sober-minded  and  prudent  scientists,  was  pronounced,  in  so 
many  words,  an  iridescent  dream.  Nevertheless,  he  made  the 
dream  come  true.  In  that  dream  and  its  realization,  New  Mexico 
has  shared.  Stimulated  by  its  influence  other  men  dreamed,  and 
took  courage  for  splendid  things ;  and  out  of  their  dreamings  and 
their  doings  there  arose  on  the  Pacific  shore  a  structure  that  was 
more  than  lath  and  mortar;  that  was  a  symbol  of  New  Mexico's 
awakening  to  the  meaning  of  her  past,  to  the  value  of  her  present,  to 
the  promise  of  her  future  —  a  monument  whose  reflected  light  has 
illuminated  the  State ;  and  which  we  have  now  brought  home  to  her 
own  soil,  transformed  into  enduring  masonry,  and  endowed  with 
perpetuity,  that  all  her  children  may  cherish  and  enjoy. 

And  thus  it  comes  to  pass,  as  the  outcome  of  these  years  of  plan- 
ning and  of  striving,  that  the  result  is  now  before  us ;  and  it  may 
well  be  said  by  him  who  planned,  and  by  every  one  whose  influence, 
whose  encouragement,  whose  labour,  or  whose  financial  aid,  have 
helped  to  bring  about  this  crowning  achievement:  "If  a  monument 
you  wish,  look  about  you." 

Every  man  and  woman  who  has  had  anything  to  do  with  the 
Museum  of  New  Mexico,  old  or  new,  whether  as  to  its  establish- 
ment, its  construction,  its  decoration,  or  the  scientific  and  artistic 
activities  connected  with  it,  if  they  speak  with  candour  and  honesty, 
will  say  that  the  basic  idea,  and  the  inspiration  and  dynamic  force 
to  carry  it  out,  came  from  a  single  brain. 

Therefore,  I  say,  in  order  that  the  truth  may  be  known  of  all  men, 
that  whatever  others  may  have  done,  be  it  much  or  little,  toward  the 
creation  of  the  epoch-making  edifice  in  which  we  now  stand,  there 
is  one  man,  without  whose  initiative  and  inspiring  force  it  would  not 
be  here  to-day.     His  name  is  Edgar  L.  Hewett. 

The  work  of  the  builders  is  done.  But  the  task  of  those  who  are 
to  use  what  they  have  builded,  and  by  its  use  to  justify  the  public 
munificence  and  private  liberality  which  have  made  it  possible,  has 
only  just  begun.  That  the  completed  structure  will  be  an  ornament 
to  the  city,  and  an  added  attraction  for  travelers,  will  for  the  mo- 
ment seem  to  many  its  most  evident  appeal.  If  it  stood  for  noth- 
ing else,  then  the  brain  and  money  spent  upon  it  would  have  been 
to  little  purpose.  But  I  conceive  its  functions  to  be  of  far  higher 
and  nobler  import  than  this ;  and  it  may  be  an  opportune  time  to 
consider  for  a  moment  what  are  the  better  things  for  which  this 
fine  achievement  stands? 

First  of  all  is  the  lesson  which  it  imparts  —  the  same  that  was 


The  Art  Museum  of  Santa  Fe        437 

taught  by  Father  ^Esop  two  millenniums  ago,  but  which  mankind  is 
ever  prone  to  forget  —  that  when  our  enterprises  lag,  when  the  car 
of  progress  is  stalled  in  the  mire  of  stagnation,  we  stop  calling  on 
the  gods  for  help,  and  put  our  own  shoulders  to  the  wheel.  .  .  . 

Next  in  order  comes  clearly  the  mission  of  this  building  to  honour 
the  Past.  It  is  intended  to  commemorate  a  page  of  history  that  is  a 
blank  to  the  Anglo-Saxon  and  amalgamated  peoples  who  call  them- 
selves "Americans."  To  judge  from  what  the  popular  histories  and 
literature  of  these  United  States  have  told  us,  it  might  well  be  sup- 
posed that  modern  civilization  on  this  continent  began  with  the 
landing  of  the  Pilgrims  at  Plymouth  Rock,  or  at  the  earliest  with 
the  founding  of  Jamestown,  in  1G07.  We  knew  something  of  the 
purely  military  occupation  of  parts  of  the  Spanish-American  posses- 
sions. From  the  enchanting  romance  of  our  one-time  Governor 
Wallace,  and  from  the  scarcely  less  romantic  history  of  Prescott,  we 
had  learned  of  the  invasion  and  conquest  of  Mexico  by  the  almost 
incredible  campaigns  of  the  Spanish  soldiery  under  Cortez  —  an 
achievement  of  arms  which  for  sheer  military  ability,  inflexible 
resolution,  personal  heroism,  endurance,  courage,  and  the  victorious 
accomplishment  of  impossibilities,  is  not  surpassed  in  the  annals  of 
war.  With  the  capture  and  death  of  Montezuma,  Alvarado's  leap, 
and  the  tragedies  of  the  Triste  Noche,  we  have  been  familiar  from 
childhood.  But  Spain  was  not  only  a  great  conqueror;  she  was  also 
a  great  colonizer,  who  followed  up  her  arms  with  the  arts  of  Peace. 
And  what  our  school  books  and  our  histories  do  not  tell  us  is,  that 
long  before  the  Mayflozccr  touched  the  shores  of  New  England,  in 
many  cases  nearly  a  full  century  before,  there  had  been  planted 
in  the  great  Southwest,  of  which  we  are  a  part,  by  the  Spanish  na- 
tion, in  the  footsteps  of  her  dauntless  conquistadores,  every  one  of 
the  agencies  of  Civilization  and  Peace  known  to  those  times,  headed 
by  the  Hospital,  the  Printing  Press,  and  the  School.  .  .  . 

This  very  capital  of  Santa  Fe,  seat  of  government  of  a  vast 
province,  was  founded  before  Jamestown.  To  achieve  and  maintain 
the  dominion  which  preceded  and  followed  it,  called  for  marches, 
battles  and  sieges,  of  the  same  appalling  and  heroic  character  as 
those  of  the  first  conquerors.  Explorations  of  prodigious  hardship 
and  extent,  unparalleled  in  our  eastern  settlements,  opened  up  a 
knowledge  of  the  country  as  a  guide  to  intelligent  colonization. 
Not  only  so,  but  those  conquerors,  explorers,  and  colonizers,  in 
spite  of  the  privations  and  perils  by  which  they  were  daily  con- 
fronted, found  time  to  write  for  transmission  to  the  mother  country, 
reports  and  treatises  upon  the  countries  they  had  seen  and  their 
doings  therein,  of  amazing  fullness  and  wealth  of  detail,  which  form 
by  themselves  an   enormous   literature.     Nowhere  in   any  English- 


438    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

speaking  colony  has  there  been  anything  to  compare  with  it.  To 
say  nothing  of  the  multitude  of  published  books  containing  these 
relaciones,  I  am  informed  by  a  competent  authority  from  recent 
personal  examination,  that  there  are  at  this  day  in  the  Royal  Library 
at  Seville,  in  Spain,  at  least  three  million  unpublished  manuscripts 
relating  to  the  Spanish  colonies  in  America;  and  that  it  would  take 
a  force  of  trained  scholars,  with  proper  clerical  assistance,  fully  fifty 
years  to  even  make  a  digest  of  their  contents. 

Some  of  the  accounts  of  these  early  writers  on  New  Mexico  are 
works  of  truly  classic  rank,  and  for  tense  narrative  and  dramatic 
interest  are  worthy  to  be  read  along  with  Herodotus  and  Xenophon. 

While  this  building,  in  all  its  historic  significance,  relates  back  to 
the  period  of  the  Spanish  conquerors,  it  is  not  their  deeds,  daunt- 
less and  amazing  as  they  were,  which  it  is  especially  designed  to 
commemorate.  In  its  massive  walls  and  unique  design  are  typified 
the  works  of  men  of  equally  intrepid,  and  far  more  unselfish  cour- 
age ;  men  who  bore  the  cross  instead  of  the  sword ;  who  endured 
privation,  suffering,  torture  and  martyrdom,  with  a  fortitude  and 
religious  enthusiasm  which  have  never  been  surpassed;  who  stood 
between  the  mailed  Spaniard  and  the  cotton-clad  Indian  trusting  to 
his  temples  and  his  gods,  as  the  Apostles  of  peace  and  good-will ; 
men  who  builded  as  they  preached,  and  who  left  behind  them  as  me- 
morials of  their  crusade  works  which  a  New  Mexican  author,  writ- 
ing reverently  of  their  period,  says  were  "  not  little  log  or  mud 
chapels,  but  massive  stone  masonries,  whose  ruins  stand  to-day  the 
noblest  of  our  North  America." 

Not  only  the  noblest,  but  of  their  kind  by  far  the  oldest.  For 
more  than  half  a  century  the  American  public  has  been  familiar 
with  the  Missions  of  California,  and  in  their  picturesque  beauty  and 
romantic  settings  has  thought  to  recognize  the  prototypes  of  Chris- 
tian religious  edifices  within  our  national  boundaries.  That  public 
has  not  known,  and  most  of  it  does  not  know  to-day,  that  here  in 
New  Mexico,  more  than  a  hundred  and  fifty  years  before  the  first 
Mission  of  California,  arose  a  series  of  Mission  Churches  of  an 
architecture  new,  distinct,  unlike  any  other  upon  this  continent,  and 
evolved  out  of  the  conditions  of  their  environment.  They  were 
builded  by  that  devoted  order  of  Franciscan  Brothers,  the  life  and 
influence  of  whose  great  founder  are  depicted  and  illuminated  by 
the  paintings  upon  these  walls. 

These  paintings  were  conceived  and  begun  by  a  young  and  great 
artist,  by  whose  untimely  death,  in  the  opinion  of  every  competent 
observer  who  has  inspected  his  numerous  other  works,  American 
Art  lost  one  of  its  brightest  lights.     A  man  of  poetic  imagination; 


The  Art  Museum  of  Santa  Fe        439 

a  deep  and  philosophic  thinker;  a  painter  of  infinite  courage,  and 
loving  the  Southwest  in  which  he  was  horn  —  he  wrought  unceas- 
ingly with  brain  as  well  as  brush.  What  he  projected  and  had  fairly 
well  begun,  has  been  completed  with  fidelity  by  his  two  comrades, 
who  took  upon  themselves  the  hardest  task  an  artist  can  be  called 
to  do  —  to  finish  what  another  has  commenced.  Unselfishly  they 
subordinated  their  own  personalities  that  the  creation  of  their  friend 
might  not  perish.  To  him  who  laid  down  the  brush  beside  his  un- 
finished canvases,  we  can  offer  only  the  perennial  tribute  of  our 
admiration.  To  those  who  took  it  up,  and  wrought  loyally  and  well 
that  his  ideals  might  live,  let  us  give  all  honour  and  praise. 

To  recount  the  facts  and  achievements  of  those  soldiers  of  the 
Cross,  the  Franciscan  friars,  would  require  time  far  beyond  that  at 
my  disposal ;  but  they  may  all  be  found  along  with  the  other  vital 
facts  marking  the  beginnings  of  this  commonwealth,  in  the  works 
of  our  New  Mexico  historians.  ...  In  the  forefront  of  every  march 
and  every  exploration  there  was  always  the  brown-robed  Franciscan, 
bearing  along  with  his  crucifix,  the  trowel  and  the  book.  To  con- 
vert, to  build,  and  to  teach  —  these  were  the  self-devoted  tasks  to 
which  he  consecrated  his  life.  .  .  ,  Especially  at  this  time  do  we 
honour  him  as  a  builder.  Living  among  a  passionate  people,  who 
resented  the  intrusion  of  strange  gods  among  their  own,  often  sur- 
rounded by  cruel  and  relentless  foes  —  the  type  of  his  structures 
was  determined  by  the  conditions  of  his  existence.  There  must  be 
a  church  in  which  to  preach  the  new  religion ;  a  convent  in  which 
to  live;  and  along  with  these  a  school  in  which  he  might  give  in- 
struction. These  must  be  connected  and  compactly  placed  to  serve 
as  a  fortress  against  present  enemies ;  and  they  must  be  massive,  to 
withstand  the  ravages  of  time.  There  were  eleven  such  churches 
in  New  Mexico  alone  prior  to  the  landing  of  the  Mayflower;  and 
more  than  fifty  others  were  established  here  during  the  century 
which  followed.  Some  of  the  noblest  of  them  are  in  ruins,  which 
it  is  the  object  of  this  institution  to  protect  from  further  decay. 
Others  have  been  made  into  worse  than  ruins  by  the  acts  of  mis- 
guided priests  of  recent  times,  seeking  to  "  improve  "  and  "  modern- 
ize "  them.  But  enough  remain  untouched  by  the  spoiler  to  enable 
us,  by  utilizing  the  imposing  features  of  existing  churches  and  those 
learned  by  careful  study  of  the  ruins,  to  reconstruct  with  fidelity  to 
the  best  original  conceptions  of  those  great  builders  an  example 
which  may  be  called  a  composite  of  their  finest  structures. 

Such  is  the  building  in  which  we  are  now  assembled.  And  we 
offer  it,  confidently,  for  the  judgment  of  the  American  people,  as  the 
noblest,  simplest,  and  in  every  way  the  most  impressive  type  of 
Christian  architecture  originating  upon  this  continent.     Borrowed  as 


440    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

to  design  from  a  religious  edifice  of  one  of  the  great  theological 
denominations,  it  is  to  become  here  a  home  of  Science,  of  Art,  and 
of  Education;  free  of  all  sectarian  influence,  but  to  whose  benefits, 
for  the  purposes  to  which  it  is  devoted,  all  creeds  shall  be  welcome. 

In  the  chapel  where  the  builders  were  wont  to  preach,  Science  will 
raise  its  torch;  where  once  they  dwelt,  Art  will  reign;  and  where 
they  taught  their  simple  lessons,  modern  Education  will  approach 
the  problems  of  our  time.  The  voice  of  the  Friar  will  not  be  heard ; 
but  his  influence  and  example  will  endure.  And  if  we  who  succeed 
him  shall  bring  to  the  new  tasks  even  a  small  part  of  the  energy,  the 
perseverance,  and  the  single-hearted  devotion  which  were  exhibited 
by  those  old  Franciscans,  then  indeed  may  we  hope  to  leave  me- 
morials of  our  time  that  will  outlast  even  these  walls,  and  transmit 
to  our  posterity  a  worthy  record  of  our  activities. 

Back  of  all  this,  and  from  a  scientific  as  well  as  an  ethical  point  of 
view  perhaps  most  important  of  all,  lies  the  motive  to  render  tardy 
justice  to  the  native  American.  By  this  I  do  not  mean  people  who 
happen  to  be  born  here  in  these  times.  But  I  refer  to  those  who 
inhabited  the  Indies  which  Columbus  unknowingly  discovered,  and 
whom  the  European  found  a  prey  to  his  superior  equipment  for 
war;  who  had  worked  out  for  themselves  the  problems  of  life  as  an 
independent  racial  stock;  who  had  conceived  their  religious  systems 
through  reflection  upon  Nature's  visible  forces;  who  practised  them 
usually  with  the  humility  that  such  reflection  begets,  but  occasionally 
to  the  point  of  human  sacrifice  with  the  enthusiasm  of  the  Ma- 
hometan slaying  whomsoever  believed  not  the  Koran,  or  of  the 
Christian  burning  other  Christians  who  believed  a  different  Christi- 
anity from  his  own  ;  who  lived  according  to  their  lights  for  the  com- 
mon good  of  the  people ;  who  loved  and  fought,  and  conquered  their 
neighbours  or  were  conquered  by  them,  according  to  the  same 
natural  law  as  other  men,  and  in  conformity  with  the  best  Caucasian 
examples ;  who  defended  their  country  against  invasion  with  the 
same  courage  that  has  inspired  heroic  poetry  in  all  times ;  who 
thought  out  within  this  continent  a  hundred  or  more  different  lan- 
guages, some  of  them  with  grammars  of  amazing  intricacy ;  who 
builded,  with  wood,  with  mud,  or  with  stone  according  to  their  sur- 
roundings, monuments  of  their  culture  and  their  beliefs  —  the 
Alaskan  the  Totem  at  his  dwelling  front;  the  Cliff-dweller  his 
shrines  and  his  Kivas ;  the  Inca  his  cyclopean  Andes  fortresses ;  the 
Maya  his  temples  and  his  glyphs ;  the  Navaho  his  ritualistic  sand 
paintings  to  vanish  in  a  day;  while  the  plains  Indian,  having  nothing 
with  which  to  build,  created  in  his  mind  temples  to  the  unseen 
Powers  of  marvelous  composition,  which  passed  down  from  genera- 
tion to  generation  by  word  of  mouth. 


The  Art  Museum  of  Santa  Fe        441 

We  cannot  restore  to  the  original  American  his  lost  dominion ;  nor 
from  our  view  of  human  progress  might  it  be  desirable  to  do  so. 
But  we  can  learn  something  about  him,  as  the  representative  of  a 
fourth  part  of  the  human  race,  and  even  something  from  him.  He 
was  old  when  we  came  upon  him,  with  an  antiquity  now  growing 
by  research  and  to  be  measured  by  millenniums  perhaps  as  many  as 
our  own.  He  has  left  no  history  save  that  written  by  alien  con- 
querors, and  that  handed  down  by  himself  in  the  memorials  of  his 
works  and  the  culture  of  the  surviving  peoples.  It  is  by  these  alone 
that  he  must  be  studied.  And  if  such  study  be  made  with  serious 
purpose  and  open  mind,  it  may  be  found  not  only  of  interest  to  the 
plodding  scientist,  but  of  inspiration  to  the  artist,  and  of  profit  to 
the  average  citizen.  For  we  may  learn  from  him  many  things  on 
which  it  is  useful  to  reflect —  reverence  for  the  Powers  of  the  Uni- 
verse ;  the  value  of  the  spoken  word  when  passed ;  respect  for  Age, 
obedience  to  Authority,  and  devotion  to  the  State  —  which  should 
make  for  better  citizenship,  for  more  unselfish  patriotism,  and  for 
the  greater  security  of  our  national  ideals. 

Another  thought  follows  so  logically  upon  this  that  it  may  not  be 
passed  by  without  a  word.  Stimulated  by  the  restrictions  of  Euro- 
pean war,  there  has  grown  up  in  this  country  a  movement  designed 
to  influence  travel  which  is  expressed  by  the  legend,  "  See  America 
First."  Hitherto,  whenever  the  word  "  travel "  was  mentioned,  the 
thought  instantly  reverted  to  the  attractions  of  Europe ;  and  any 
allusion  to  the  subject  of  Archaeology  suggested  to  the  mind  of  the 
average  intelligent  American  nothing  but  the  antiquities  of  the  Old 
World,  he  forgetting,  or  rather  not  having  learned,  that  the  country 
which  belongs  to  us  has  antiquities  of  its  own.  .  .  . 

It  is  to  promote  the  knowledge  of  this  inviting  field,  and  to  place 
the  study  of  it  upon  a  par  with  that  of  other  regions,  that  the  or- 
ganization has  been  formed  whose  activities  are  centered  in  this 
building,  and  will  be  bounded  only  by  the  limits  of  our  own  conti- 
nent; and  whose  purposes,  to  investigate  whatever  man  has  been  or 
what  he  has  done  within  these  limits,  are  all  expressed  by  its  title, 
"  School  of  American  Research."  For  the  achievement  of  these  pur- 
poses, as  a  laudable  and  thoroughly  appropriate  national  object, 
upon  a  plane  of  intellectual  endeavour  above  the  ordinary,  and  in 
which  a  prosperous  nation  may  well  take  a  patriotic  pride,  we  invite 
the  support  of  the  American  people.  Therefore,  to  provide  an 
effectual  expression  of  the  thought  which  should  animate  our  people 
as  never  before  in  our  history,  I  propose  that  we  add  to  the  slogan 
of  the  sight-seer  the  more  comprehensive  watch-word,  that  shall 
appeal  alike  to  the  student,  the  traveler,  and  the  patriot  —  Know 
America  First.     So  it  may  come  to  pass  that  from  the  turmoil  of 


442    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

theories,  of  agitations,  and  of  vain-glorious  boastings,  and  from  the 
dismal  follies  of  idle  luxury,  this  nation  may  pass  on  to  a  more 
worthy  epoch  of  hard  and  earnest  work  —  whose  aim,  with  organized 
purpose  and  concerted  striving,  shall  be  to  render  just  account  of  the 
wealth  of  earth,  air  and  sky  with  which  a  bountiful  Providence  has 
endowed  us.  Thus  may  America  begin  to  know  herself,  and  go 
forward  with  power  and  majesty  to  the  destiny  which  invites  her. 
Thus  from  borrowers  and  imitators  shall  we  become  creators,  and 
our  creations  shall  challenge  the  respect  of  mankind.  Depending  no 
longer  upon  other  lands  or  times  for  inspiration  to  brush,  to  chisel, 
to  trowel  or  to  song,  we  shall  find  at  home  the  themes  for  boundless 
achievement,  and  our  arts  shall  grow  —  as  this  temple  has  grown, 
and  as  all  true  and  enduring  Art  must  ever  grow  —  straight  from 
our  own  soil. 

Thus  while  the  Past  may  teach  us,  it  is  the  Future  that  calls  and 
beckons.  And  herein,  finally,  lies  the  supreme  mission  of  this 
building,  and  of  the  organizations  and  influences  which  cluster 
around  it  —  to  point  the  way  to  this  inspiring  goal,  and  to  bear  a 
part  in  its  attainment. 

To  these  lofty  purposes  we  are  dedicating  this  edifice  to-night. 
Yet  far  better  than  by  any  words  of  mine  has  it  already  been  dedi- 
cated by  the  thought,  the  devotion,  and  the  labour  of  those  who  con- 
ceived it,  of  the  architects  who  planned,  and  of  the  builder  who 
brought  it  into  being. 

But  now  borrowing,  reverently,  from  the  thought  voiced  in  the 
sublimest  passage  in  the  literary  annals  of  this  nation,  let  it  be  said 
that  in  a  higher  sense  we  of  this  commonwealth,  not  alone  those  of 
Science  and  of  Art,  but  the  great  body  of  the  people  now  here 
represented,  do  rather  dedicate  ourselves  to  the  understanding,  the 
safe-guarding,  and  the  advancement  of  the  objects  for  which  this 
building  stands ;  so  that  we  may  realize  the  dignity  of  its  character, 
the  solemnity  of  its  purposes,  and  the  majesty  of  what  it  represents; 
that  we  may  cherish  it  with  affectionate  solicitude,  and  intrench  it 
impregnably  with  our  veneration  and  respect. 

Let  us  hope  that  as  often  as  we  look  upon  its  noble  exterior,  or 
enter  within  its  portals,  we  may  take  inspiration  from  the  thought  of 
what  it  means ;  that  we  may  learn  that  the  problem  of  humanity 
has  many  sides ;  that  money  is  not  all  there  is,  but  that  there  are 
other  things  in  this  life  worthy  of  our  attention,  which  may  bring 
us  to  greater  satisfaction  as  the  years  go  on. 

And  let  us  resolve  that  within  these  walls,  thus  consecrated  to 
serious  reflection  upon  what  they  signify  and  what  they  commemo- 
rate, the  ordinary  contentions  of  men  may  not  enter;  that  the  com- 
petitions of  politics,  the  mad  pursuit  of  wealth,  power  and  position, 


The  Art  Museum  of  Santa  Fe        443 

may  find  no  place  here ;  but  that  in  this  sanctuary,  which  should  be 
for  us  as  sacred  as  the  prototypes  on  which  it  is  modeled,  there 
shall  be  ever  present  to  our  minds  as  the  guiding  Genius  of  the  place, 
a  benign  and  radiant  Spirit,  which,  if  we  will  but  yield  ourselves  to 
its  chastening  influence,  shall  permeate  and  possess  us;  shall  deliver 
us  from  every  base  and  sordid  passion ;  shall  uplift  us  to  the  level 
of  our  own  better  natures ;  and  make  us  worthy  of  the  heritage 
which  the  mighty  Past  has  left  us. 


CHAPTER  XXIX 

IRRIGATION    IN    NEW    MEXICO 

The  valley  of  the  Rio  Grande  might  not  inappropri- 
ately be  termed  "  the  historic  heart  of  America."  Sev- 
enty years  before  the  Pilgrim  Fathers  landed  on  Ply- 
month  Rock  —  and  first  fell  upon  their  knees  and  then 
upon  the  aborigines  —  Marcos  de  Nizza  and  Coronado 
had  penetrated  this  valley  and  were  starting  a  movement 
that  ultimately  led  to  the  colonization  and  christianization 
of  what  are  now  New  Mexico,  Arizona,  California, 
Nevada,  Utah,  Colorado  and  Texas.  The  Rio  Grande 
Valley  was  the  base  of  these  extensive  operations.  Up  its 
length  traveled  the  later  colonizers,  and  down  it  fled  in 
terror  the  priests  and  people  to  escape  torture  and  murder 
from  the  exasperated  Indians  in  the  rebellion  of  1680. 
Espejo,  Chamuscada,  Juan  de  Onate,  the  Zaldivars,  and 
Villagra, —  what  names  spring  to  the  memory  as  those 
early  days  are  recalled.  Then,  after  the  rebellion  came 
the  reconquest  by  Don  Diego  de  Vargas  and  Otermin, 
followed  by  Francisco  Cuervo  de  Valdez  as  Governor, 
appointed  by  the  new  viceroy,  the  Duke  of  Albuquerque. 
In  honour  of  his  patron,  Cuervo  founded,  in  1706,  the 
third  Spanish  villa  of  New  Mexico,  in  a  fertile  valley  of 
the  Rio  Grande,  and  gave  it  his  name. 

During  these  years  of  early  settlement  the  colonists 
utilized  the  waters  of  the  Rio  Grande  by  establishing 
extensive  though  crude  irrigation  systems  along  its  course. 
In  this  they  followed  the  example  set  them  by  the  In- 
dians, who,  from  time  immemorial  had  been  irrigationists 
and  whose  ancient  and  abandoned  canal  systems  the  colon- 

444 


Irrigation  in  New  Mexico  445 

ists  often  utilized.  But  the  Rio  Grande  is  an  uncertain 
river.  Those  who,  in  those  days,  relied  upon  its  waters 
soon  designated  it  as  treacherous.  For  the  Rio  Grande, 
sometimes,  is  torrential  in  its  wild  floods,  and  again,  it 
ceases  entirely,  not  a  single  trickle  of  water  being  found 
in  its  sandy  bed.  It  rises  in  Colorado  and  flows  south- 
ward the  entire  length  of  New  Mexico;  for  a  distance  of 
four  miles  above  El  Paso,  forming  the  boundary  between 
Texas  and  New  Mexico,  then  for  1,300  miles  it  winds  its 
tortuous  way,  forming  the  boundary  between  Texas  and 
Mexico,  finally  emptying  into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 
Above  El  Paso  it  has  a  length  of  about  900  miles,  and  a 
drainage  area  of  38,000  square  miles.  Its  headwaters 
in  the  basin  of  Colorado  and  New  Mexico  are  found  in 
snow-clad  mountain  peaks.  When  the  melting  time  oc- 
curs, spring  and  early  summer,  the  river  rises  higher  and 
higher,  and  in  the  autumn  and  winter  it  flows  but  slightly. 
The  major  portion  of  the  New  Mexico  drainage  area 
is  arid  and  desert  in  character,  and  the  meager  precipita- 
tion is  erratic  in  consequence. 

The  permanent  summer  flow  of  water  is  entirely  ap- 
propriated in  the  upper  reaches  of  the  river,  leaving  for 
the  southern  portion  of  New  Mexico  little  more  than  the 
floods  which  occur  at  irregular  intervals.  These  used  to 
wash  out  the  temporary  dams  of  brush  and  rock  that  were 
employed,  and  which  could  not  be  rebuilt  until  the  water 
subsided. 

This  was  the  state  of  affairs  when  the  Reclamation 
Service  was  called  upon  for  aid.  It  was  soon  evident 
that  permanent  dams  were  required  at  the  head  of  each  of 
the  small  valleys  that  line  the  river.  Indeed  it  has  not  in- 
aptly been  said  that  a  map  of  this  river  appears  like  a  link 
of  irregular-sized  sausages,  reaching  from  San  Marcial, 
N.  M.,  to  El  Paso,  Texas. 


446    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

The  International  Boundary  Commission  was  also 
called  upon  to  help  solve  the  problem.  It  worked  out  a 
plan  whereby  water  would  be  stored  in  the  Rio  Grande,  by 
building  a  dam  just  above  El  Paso,  which  would  serve  the 
needs  of  50,000  acres  of  land,  more  than  half  of  which 
were  on  the  Mexican  side.  This  plan,  however,  did  not 
utilize  the  entire  flow  of  the  river,  and  not  only  did  it  lack 
both  storage  capacity  and  irrigable  land ;  it  furnished 
no  water  for  irrigating  land  in  New  Mexico  —  where  it 
was  largely  needed  —  and  at  the  same  time  would  sub- 
merge a  large  acreage  in  that  State.  It  was  not  to  be 
wondered  at,  therefore,  that  the  project  was  unhesitat- 
ingly condemned  by  all  New  Mexicans. 

Chief  Engineer  Davis  of  the  Service  had  made  himself 
personally  familiar  with  the  peculiar  hydrographic  and 
other  conditions  of  the  Rio  Grande  River.  He  knew 
that  the  enormous  floods  which  occur  do  not  come  with 
any  regularity,  and  the  total  flow  in  some  years  is  less 
than  one-twelfth  that  of  others.  The  amount  of  silt 
carried  is  excessive,  and  this  would  be  caught  and  held 
by  any  reservoir,  irrespective  of  its  size.  With  a  small 
reservoir  this  would  soon  become  a  serious  problem.  He 
saw,  therefore,  that  it  was  imperative  that  the  reservoir 
be  as  large  and  deep  as  possible,  so  as  to  minimize 
evaporation,  to  have  ample  capacity  for  carrying  surplus 
waters  from  "  fat  "  years  to  "  lean  "  and  a  surplus  ca- 
pacity for  silt  accumulations,  so  that  the  sediment  would 
not  materially  encroach  upon  the  necessary  water-storage 
capacity  for  many  years.  Such  a  site  he  had  found  in 
1902  in  the  canyon  below  Elephant  Butte,  where  a  dam 
could  be  erected  that  would  back  up  the  water  for  about 
forty  miles,  without  submerging  any  large  body  of  good 
land  or  wash  out  any  railroad,  and  that  would  give  stor- 
age capacity  for  over  two  million  acre-feet  of  water,  cap- 


Irrigation  in  New  Mexico  447 

able  of  irrigating  180,000  acres  of  land.  Later  studies 
revealed  that  the  reservoir  could  be  built  so  as  to  hold 
upward  of  two  and  a  half  million  acre-feet  of  water. 

As  the  republic  of  Mexico  and  the  State  of  Texas  both 
made  irrigation  claims  upon  the  Rio  Grande,  agreements 
were  made  with  them  for  their  proportion  of  water  and 
the  way  was  thus  cleared  for  progress.  Accordingly 
the  dam  was  built,  its  system  of  canals  and  distribution 
perfected  and  to-day  they  are  in  full  operation.  For 
full  particulars  of  this  cyclopean  work  the  reader  is  re- 
ferred to  my  complete  book  on  the  labours  of  the  U.  S. 
Reclamation  Service.1 

In  the  adjudication  of  the  rights  of  the  various  water- 
users  on  the  Rio  Grande  there  were  many  and  conflict- 
ing interests  to  consider.  In  the  first  place  it  must  be  re- 
called that  its  headwaters,  and  those  of  its  earlier  tribu- 
taries, are  in  Colorado.  Necessarily  the  citizens  who 
dwell  in  that  State,  near  to  these  sources,  felt  they  had 
the  first  claim  upon  the  water. 

It  is  a  fair-sized  stream  that  enters  the  boundaries  of 
New  Mexico,  almost  due  north  of  Taos,  and  flows  prac- 
tically parallel  with  the  course  of  the  Denver  and  Rio 
Grande  railway,  until  the  latter  crosses  it  for  its  east- 
ward bend  to  Santa  Fe.  The  river  was  called  upon 
to  supply  water  for  many  larger  and  smaller  irrigation 
works  in  the  northern  part  of  New  Mexico,  and  constant 
use  had  seemed  to  constitute  an  inalienable  right.  This 
condition  existed  here  and  there  until  the  Elephant  Butte 
Dam  was  reached.  Naturally,  the  settlers  below  the  dam 
exclaimed :  "  We  are  entitled  to  the  water  the  govern- 
ment project  has  assured  us."  But  El  Paso,  Texas,  and 
old  Mexico  also  had  claims,  and  thus  there  were  calls 
upon  this  "  raging  river  of  the  North,"  that  could  not 

1  Reclaiming  the  Arid  West,  Dodd,  Mead  &  Co.,  New  York. 


448    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

always  be  satisfied  unless,  and  until,  the  enlarged  plans 
of  such  far-sighted  statesmen  as  F.  H.  Newell,  formerly 
director  of  the  U.  S.  Reclamation  Service,  A.  P.  Davis, 
the  present  director  and  chief  engineer,  and  the  late  U.  S. 
Senator  Newlands  of  Nevada  are  carried  out.  These 
men  have  long  seen  that  the  full  demands  of  the  people 
for  water  to  irrigate  their  lands  never  can  be  met  until 
all  the  flood  waters  are  captured  and  controlled  at  their 
sources,  at  the  time  and  in  the  places  where  they  leap  into 
being  during  the  swift  melting  of  the  winters'  snows. 
What  the  government  has  done  in  this  line  in  the  past, — 
great  though  it  seems  to  be  and  is  —  is  but  a  slight  be- 
ginning compared  with  the  magnitude  and  comprehensive- 
ness of  the  plans  it  must  carry  out  in  the  future.  Every 
stream,  however  large  or  small,  that  has  land  to  be  ir- 
rigated on,  or  near,  or  accessible,  to  its  banks,  must  ulti- 
mately be  controlled  as  perfectly  as  are  the  ordinary  rain 
showers  in  any  well-ordered  city.  Hundreds,  perhaps 
thousands,  of  millions  of  dollars  may  be  needed  to 
achieve  this,  but  it  will  be  done.  Statesmen  will  become 
tired  of  doing  what  politicians  have  done,  viz.,  paying 
the  damages  caused  by  flood-waters  every  year,  while  at 
the  same  time  they  lose  the  beneficial  waters  imperatively 
needed  for  irrigation.  They  will  go  to  the  source;  im- 
pound the  flood  waters,  thus  cutting  off  once  and  forever 
all  possibility  of  flood-damages,  and  at  the  same  time 
provide  for  the  needs  of  the  land,  now  vacant  and  use- 
less, upon  which  teeming  millions  of  happy  populations 
can  then  be  settled. 

The  Carlsbad  Project 

Another  river  in  New  Mexico  that  appealed  to  the 
vision  of  the  irrigation  farmer  was  the  Pecos.  This 
river  rises  about  forty  miles  northwest  of  Las  Vegas  in 


Irrigation  in  New  Mexico  44-9 

the  wooded  and  mountainous  area  included  in  the  Pecos 
Forest  Reserve,  and  flows  in  a  general  southeasterly 
course  through  the  counties  of  Mora,  San  Miguel, 
Leonardwood,  Chaves  and  Eddy  into  Texas  and  thence 
to  the  Rio  Grande.  It  drains  a  region  above  the  Carlsbad 
Project  of  22,000  square  miles.  Like  all  the  streams  of 
this  region,  it  is  almost  dry  at  times,  and  at  others  is  sub- 
ject to  violent  floods. 

Where  the  Pecos  River  crosses  Eddy  County  it  flows 
through  a  valley  from  six  to  twenty  miles  wide,  the 
soil  of  which  is  a  sandy  loam  with  considerable  lime  pe- 
culiar to  this  region,  and  which  bears  the  name  of  the 
river.  The  success  of  the  Indians  and  Mexicans  in  grow- 
ing a  variety  of  crops  led  to  enthusiastic  and  eager  set- 
tlement of  this  valley  and  the  appropriation  of  all  avail- 
able water  for  irrigation. 

Private  enterprise  sought  to  meet  the  public  needs,  but 
the  cost  was  so  great  and  so  many  unexpected  difficulties 
were  encountered  that  finally  the  work  had  to  be  taken 
over  by  the  Reclamation  Service,  under  whose  direc- 
tion it  is  now  being  carried  on. 

The  Hondo  Project 

Another  irrigation  project  was  demanded  by  the  peo- 
ple of  New  Mexico,  but  it  has  proven  a  practical  failure 
owing  to  the  peculiar  nature  of  the  ground  upon  which 
the  dam  and  reservoir  were  located.  I  have  told  the  full 
story  in  the  book  especially  devoted  to  the  work  of 
Reclamation,  and  it  is  one  well  worth  reading,  as  it  re- 
veals some  idea  of  the  difficulties  in  the  way,  which  our 
foremost  engineers  were  unable  to  foresee. 


CHAPTER  XXX 

ALBUQUERQUE,    THE    COMMERCIAL    METROPOLIS    OF 

NEW    MEXICO 

Stated  in  bald  terms,  New  Mexico's  chief  financial 
assets  for  two  centuries  have  been  sheep,  cattle  and  mines. 
Now  two  other  most  important  assets  must  be  added. 
These  are  agriculture  and  romance.  Such  valleys  as 
those  of  the  Pecos  and  Rio  Grande  have  always  proven 
their  great  fertility  where  water  was  to  be  had  for  irri- 
gation, as  is  shown  in  the  chapter  upon  that  subject,  and 
of  late  years  millions  have  been  added  to  the  annual  in- 
come of  New  Mexico  by  this  means.  And  now  certain 
portions  of  the  State  are  beginning  to  "  cash-in  "  on  its 
romance.  The  psychology  of  the  traveler  is  complex,  be- 
cause the  traveler  is  complex.  He  is  composed  of  every 
class  of  person  who  has  been  fortunate  enough  to  amass 
money.  Among  travelers  will  be  found  men  and  women 
to  whom  stupendous  scenery  does  not  appeal ;  who  care 
nothing  for  the  Yosemite,  the  Grand  Canyon,  Glacier 
National  Park  or  the  Yellowstone.  Yet  they  might  be 
ready  and  willing,  eager,  indeed,  to  travel  miles  to  see 
such  a  natural  wonder  as  the  Lava  Flows  in  the  Zuni 
mountains,  and  those  near  Mt.  San  Mateu  (Mt.  Taylor), 
or  to  visit  the  romantic  cliff-dwellings  and  plateau  towns 
of  the  Rito  de  los  Frijoles.  There  are  those  to  whom  the 
living  Indians  of  the  Pueblo  of  Acoma  of  to-day  would 
not  make  the  slightest  appeal,  who,  on  the  other  hand, 
would  be  profoundly  moved  by  the  story  of  Katzimo, — 

450 


Albuquerque,  the  Commercial  Metropolis    451 

the  Enchanted  Mesa  —  and  its  fateful  and  forceful  aban- 
donment by  the  rude  hand  of  Storm. 

As  is  clearly  shown  in  other  chapters,  New  Mexico  is 
the  State  of  all  states  for  romance  in  its  history,  its  scen- 
ery, and  its  Indians  —  past  and  present.  Albuquerque, 
owing  to  its  location  and  railway  relationships,  is  essen- 
tially the  gateway  to  a  large  area  of  these  romantic  loca- 
tions. Of  the  scores  of  thousands  of  travelers  by  rail 
and  automobile  that  annually  visit  California,  fully  fifty 
per  cent,  would  spend  from  a  week  to  a  month  in  New 
Mexico  did  they  fully  grasp  the  full  significance  of  what 
the  earlier  pages  of  this  book  contain.  California  is  no 
more  fascinating  in  its  history  than  New  Mexico.  The 
latter's  missions,  while  architecturally  less  striking  than 
those  of  California,  are  more  interesting  in  their  history 
and  romance.  There  are  cliff-dwellings  of  unbounded  al- 
lurement, and  ruined  cities  that  have  excited  the  keen  at- 
tention of  travelers  ever  since  they  were  first  discovered. 
One  can  travel  the  world  over  to  find  more  picturesque 
and  peculiar,  absolutely  unique  and  singular  ceremonials 
than  those  performed  by  the  Indians  of  Acoma,  Laguna, 
Zuni,  and  the  Pueblos  of  the  Rio  Grande.  And  nowhere 
else  in  the  world  is  that  pathetic  brotherhood  —  the  Peni- 
tentes  —  known  to  exist  except  here.  Why  go  to 
Lourdes  to  see  miracles  of  healing  at  a  sacred  shrine  when 
at  the  old  Sanctuario  at  Chimayo  one  may  see  the  deaf 
made  to  hear,  the  blind  receive  their  sight,  the  lame  walk, 
the  decrepit  made  strong?  —  or,  at  least,  so  say  the  faith- 
ful and  many  who  claim  to  have  been  healed.  Where 
also  in  the  world  can  one  see  people  who  actually  believe 
in  witches  and  who  within  present  historic  time  have  offi- 
cially and  legally  slain  them  as  the  highly  religious  and 
cultivated  ancestors  of  our  New  England  citizens  did 
two  or  three  centuries  ago?     The  very  hand  that  writes 


452    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

these  words  has  cut  down  some  of  the  ropes  that  have 
bound  alleged  witches ;  has  bound  up  the  cruel  wounds  in- 
flicted upon  them  for  their  witchcraft,  and  held  back 
those  who  in  their  fury  would  have  slain  men  and  women 
who  were  accused  of  this  heinous  crime. 

Within  a  few  miles  of  Albuquerque  rare  mountain 
scenery  is  to  be  enjoyed, —  wooded  canyons  joyous  with 
singing  birds  and  made  alive  by  tuneful  cataracts  and  bab- 
bling creeks.  In  the  Sandias,  and  Manzanos  to  the  east, 
comparatively  close  at  hand  are  these  delightful  vaca- 
tion places,  and  to  the  southwest  appear  the  Ladrones,  the 
Socorro,  and  Magdalena  mountains,  while  to  the  north 
lie  the  Cochiti  and  Jemez  ranges,  in  the  latter  of  which 
are  found  the  famous  curative  mineral  springs  of  Jemez. 
Twelve  miles  from  the  city  another  famous  group  of 
mineral  springs  are  found,  named  after  the  slinking  and 
retreating  coyote. 

In  all  these  ranges  the  policy  of  the  government  now 
invites  the  city  dweller  to  make  his  vacation  home.  Lots 
are  set  apart  for  personal  and  family  use;  water  and 
sewer  facilities  often  provided;  and  every  inducement  of- 
fered to  the  citizen  to  build  a  summer  cottage  in  these 
charming  and  park-like  retreats.  Scores  of  those  who 
live  in  Albuquerque  have  availed  themselves  of  this  op- 
portunity ;  they  have  erected  cottages ;  and  others  by  the 
hundreds,  the  thousands,  go  out  for  brief  picnic,  week- 
end or  camping-out  parties. 

Not  far  away  from  Albuquerque  are  those  mythical 
cities  of  allurement  and  gold  —  Abo,  Tabira  and  Gran 
Quivera,  and  on  its  streets  and  at  its  railway  station 
are  daily  seen  the  descendants  of  the  ancient  cliff-dwellers, 
the  Pueblo  Indians. 

The  city  itself  was  founded  in  the  romantic  period  of 
Spanish  occupancy,  and  derives  its  name  from  Don  Fran- 


CHURCH    OF    SAX    FELIPE    DE   NERI. 


Albuquerque,  the  Commercial  Metropolis    453 

cisco  Fernandez  de  la  Cueva  Enriquez,  Duke  of  Al- 
buquerque. The  Duke  of  Albuquerque  was  appointed 
thirty-fourth  viceroy  of  New  Spain  by  King  Felipe  V  of 
Spain,  and  entered  upon  his  new  duties  with  headquarters 
in  Vera  Cruz  in  1702.  Don  Francisco  Cuervo  y  Valdez, 
appointed  Governor  of  New  Mexico  by  the  Duke  of 
Albuquerque,  founded  the  "  Villa "  of  Albuquerque  in 
1706,  calling  it  San  Francisco  de  Albuquerque,  in  honour 
of  the  viceroy.  The  latter,  with  becoming  modesty, 
caused  the  name  to  be  changed  to  San  Felipe  de  Al- 
buquerque in  honour  of  the  King  of  Spain.  It  is  be- 
lieved by  many  that  Coronado  passed  through  here  with 
his  soldiers  in  or  near  the  year  1540,  when  it  was  a  pueblo 
of  considerable  size.  A  boulevard  passing  through  the 
lovely  cottonwood  groves  and  meadows  along  the  east 
bank  of  the  Rio  Grande  will  soon  link  this  bit  of  medieval 
Spain  in  America  with  the  Ocean-to-Ocean  Highway  near 
Albuquerque.  Evidences  of  the  Spanish  regime  in  Al- 
buquerque exist  principally  in  the  language  and  customs 
of  the  Mexican  population  and  in  the  noble  church  struc- 
ture which  still  stands  within  the  precincts  of  the  city. 
It  is  dedicated  to  San  Felipe  de  Neri,  and  is  used  daily 
for  public  worship. 

Albuquerque  is  one  of  the  cities  of  the  West  that  is  so 
openly,  so  rampantly  healthy,  so  gloriously  deluged  with 
vivifying  sunshine  and  purified  with  healing  breezes  that 
it  invites  with  open  arms  the  sick  and  ailing  to  enter  its 
portals  assured  of  a  hearty  and  sincere  welcome.  The 
climatic  conditions  are  remarkable.  Situated  at  an  alti- 
tude of  5,000  feet,  Albuquerque  is  favoured  with  a  winter 
of  pleasant  mildness,  and  a  summer  climate  by  no  means 
oppressively  hot.  The  weather  records  show  an  average 
of  315  perfect  days  in  the  year.  The  atmosphere  is  re- 
markable for  its  dryness,  the  mean  annual  precipitation 


454    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

being  only  7.51  inches.  A  broad,  high,  dry  mesa  lies  to 
the  north,  south  and  east  of  the  city.  These  conditions 
are  especially  favourable  to  those  afflicted  with  tuber- 
culosis, and  thousands  who  have  come  here  have  been 
greatly  benefited  or  cured.  The  very  noticeable  lack  of 
moisture  and  almost  constant  sunshine,  with  its  captiva- 
ting cheer  and  invigorating  warmth,  produce  a  physical 
and  mental  elation  which  plays  an  important  part  in  the 
restoration  of  health. 

That  the  climate  is  not  monotonous,  however,  is  evi- 
denced by  the  records  for  19 17.  More  former  records 
were  broken  that  year  than  ever  before  since  they  have 
been  kept.  For  instance,  the  twelve  months  were  the  dry- 
est  ever  reported,  the  total  precipitation  being  3.20  inches 
for  the  year,  which  was  less  than  half  the  normal. 

The  hottest  day  since  the  establishment  of  the  station, 
six  years  ago,  fell  in  July,  19 17,  when  the  mercury 
touched  100  degrees.  The  nearest  approach  to  that  mark 
was  in  July,  19 15,  when  the  thermometer  registered  99. 

Three  months  of  the  year  1917, —  April,  November, 
and  December  —  had  no  precipitation  whatever,  and  two 
months,  October  and  November,  had  not  a  cloudy  day. 

The  year  showed  the  greatest  monthly  ranges  in  the 
history  of  the  station.  October,  November  and  Decem- 
ber ranges  were  recorded  of  41.6,  41.7  and  42  respectively. 

The  nearest  approach  to  zero  during  the  year  was  in 
February  when  70  above  was  registered. 

July  is  the  hottest  month,  with  an  average  of  74  de- 
grees for  six  years ;  and  December  is  the  coldest  with  an 
averate  of  16.7  for  six  years.  The  average  annual 
precipitation  for  six  years  is  7.28  inches. 

Owing  to  these  climatic  conditions  various  institutions 
for  special  treatment  of  tuberculosis  have  been  founded, 
the  Catholics,  the  Methodists,  and  Presbyterians  each  hav- 


Albuquerque,  the  Commercial  Metropolis    455 

ing  their  own  commodious  buildings  in  addition  to  two 
large  private  sanitariums.  I  can  speak  personally  of  the 
care  received  in  the  general  hospital  connected  with  the 
Catholic  Institution.  While  traveling  in  an  adjoining 
State  in  the  year  191 7  I  was  unfortunate  enough  to  eat 
something  that  developed  swiftly  into  a  serious  case  of 
ptomaine  poisoning  with  strange  and  painful  complica- 
tions. As  I  got  on  the  train  I  wrote  my  wife  that  I  was 
"  burning  up  "  with  a  suddenly-developed  fever,  but  on 
arriving  at  Albuquerque  succeeded  in  reaching  my  quar- 
ters at  the  University  where  I  was  then  stopping.  Some- 
time during  the  day  my  moans  were  heard  and  President 
Boyd  and  my  good  friend  Dr.  Peters  sent  for.  They 
found  me  in  deep  distress,  my  face  and  head  fearfully 
swollen  and  distorted  with  erysipelas.  At  once  I  was 
removed  to  St.  Joseph's  Sanatorium,  carefully  isolated 
and  provided  with  a  nurse.  Within  ten  days  or  so,  I 
was  allowed  to  leave,  but  an  abscess  formed  in  the  inner 
ear;  I  had  lock-jaw  for  a  month,  was  almost  deaf  in  one 
ear  for  six  months  and  in  the  other  for  four,  and  was 
afflicted  with  what  was  later  affirmed  "  chronic  asthma." 
The  constant  and  intelligent  supervision  of  my  case  by 
Dr.  Peters  and  the  care  received,  undoubtedly  saved  my 
life,  so  that  I  have  a  very  warm  spot  in  my  heart  for  St. 
Joseph's,  its  competent  physicians  and  its  tender-hearted 
nurses. 

Albuquerque  publishes  herself  as  "  The  Heart  of  the 
Well  Country,"  and  issues  a  monthly  paper  under  the 
title  which  the  sufferer  will  do  well  to  send  for.  And  I 
am  prepared  to  affirm  my  strong  belief  that  if  those  who 
are  "  run  down,"  or  overtaxed  in  body,  mind  or  spirit 
would  come  out  here,  equipped  for  a  prolonged  camp- 
ing-out trip  and  start  out  into  the  open,  tramping,  riding 
horseback,   or  on  a  wagon,  or  even  in  an  automobile, 


456    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

daily  getting  out  and  climbing  the  mountains  or  strolling 
in  less  arduous  fashion  through  the  canyons,  eating 
frugally  of  simple  fare,  sleeping,  bathing,  and  exercising 
in  the  open,  not  only  would  they  be  restored  to  the  in- 
estimable blessing  of  health,  but  they  would  add  years  of 
radiant,  joyous  vigorousness  to  that  health  that  would 
entirely  change  their  outlook  in  life  and  its  significance. 

Of  the  city  itself  little  need  be  said  save  that  it  is  an 
active,  bustling,  prosperous  city  of  some  26,000  popula- 
tion, with  about  sixty  miles  of  graded  business  and  resi- 
dence streets.  No  modern  provision  for  sanitation  and 
comfort  has  been  omitted. 

There  are  several  notable  buildings  in  the  city,  chief 
among  which  are  the  unique  state  University  Buildings, 
elsewhere  referred  to,  the  High  School,  Wright's  Curio 
Store  —  a  fine  example  of  adaptation  of  Pueblo  archi- 
tecture to  modern  needs, —  the  Santa  Fe  Railway  Depot 
and  the  Alvarado  Hotel.  The  latter  is  one  of  the  show 
buildings  of  the  West.  It  is  largely  in  the  California 
Mission  style  of  architecture,  covers  several  acres  of 
ground  and  is  the  striking  feature  of  the  city.  Chimes 
greet  the  incoming  traveler,  and  the  Fred  Harvey  name 
assures  the  perfection  of  the  hotel  and  dining  service. 
Here  also  is  housed  one  of  the  finest  Indian  collections  on 
the  continent.  Navaho  and  other  blankets  of  rarest 
texture,  colour  and  combination  of  design  and  weave,  In- 
dian baskets  by  the  hundreds,  from  every  known  tribe, 
products  of  the  silversmith's  art  of  Pueblo  and  Navaho, 
and  pottery  from  a  score  of  different  Indian  villages,  each 
distinctive  and  attractive,  mark  some  of  the  features  of 
this  generous  display,  for  it  is  freely  opened  to  the  in- 
spection of  the  traveling  public. 

The  business  attractions  and  opportunities  of  Albu- 
querque are  many  and  varied.     It  is  the  metropolis  of  the 


Albuquerque,  the  Commercial  Metropolis    457 

State.  Everybody  is  doing  well.  It  is  the  heart  of  a 
prosperous  and  rapidly  developing  country.  It  is  a 
healthful  city  to  live  in  and  the  people  are  generous, 
large-hearted  and  rationally  sociable.  If  these  qualities, 
combined  with  the  other  advantages  I  have  enumerated, 
do  not  make  it  desirable  as  a  city  of  residence  and  business 
I  do  not  know  what  can. 


CHAPTER  XXXI 

THE   POPULATION   OF   NEW    MEXICO 

In  its  122,503  square  miles,  or  approximately  78,401,- 
920  acres,  New  Mexico,  in  1900,  had  a  population  of 
I95'3I°-  Ten  years  later  this  had  grown  to  327,301, 
an  increase  of  67.6  per  cent.  Providing  there  has  been 
a  similar  ratio  of  increase  in  the  decade  from  19 10  to 
1920,  the  next  census  should  show  a  population  of  con- 
siderably over  half  a  million.  There  is  no  doubt  what- 
ever, that,  as  its  arid  plains  and  plateaus  are  irrigated, 
or  better  methods  of  agriculture  obtained,  New  Mexico 
can  well  sustain  a  population  ten  or  twenty  times  greater 
than  it  now  possesses.  But  the  developments  named 
must  come  first,  and  they  will  come  comparatively  slowly. 
Men,  women  and  children  can  live  neither  on  antiquities, 
historic  interest,  climate,  scenery  or  prospects.  There  is 
little  doubt,  too,  that  much  of  New  Mexico  will  remain 
open  for  long  generations  yet  to  come,  as  grazing,  min- 
eral, timber  or  waste  land. 

Where,  however,  its  population  can  and  does  find  a 
good  subsistence  in  agriculture,  dairying,  stock-  or  sheep- 
raising,  fruit-culture,  mining  or  general  merchandise  they 
are  blessed  with  a  vigorous  and  robust  health  fulness  that 
cannot  be  surpassed  by  any  State  in  the  Union,  or  any 
country  in  the  world. 

This  fact  has  been  recognized  fully  by  the  federal 
health  authorities  in  that  they  have  established  here  the 
United  States  Marine  and  Army  Hospitals,  both  for 
tubercular  patients,  and  there  are  innumerable  other  sana- 

458 


The  Population  of  New  Mexico       459 


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460    New  Mexico,  Land  of  Delight  Makers 

taria  all  of  which  are  recruited  constantly  from  the  ranks 
of  the  ailing  and  weak  of  other  States. 

It  will  be  freely  conceded,  nevertheless,  that  there  are 
not  many  points  that  differentiate  most  of  the  towns  and 
cities  of  New  Mexico  from  the  other  towns  and  cities  of 
the  growing  Western  States.  Naturally,  the  environment 
and  principal  occupations  have  somewhat  to  do  with  each 
one.  Roughly  these  may  be  divided  into  a  few  classes, 
such  as  Railroad  towns,  Mining  towns,  Agricultural 
towns,  Stock-Raising  towns,  Irrigation  towns,  and  the 
like. 

There  are  26  counties  in  New  Mexico,  as  shown  in  the 
accompanying  table,  together  with  their  county  seats  and 
the  population  of  the  1910  census,  altitude,  and  the 
amount  of  surveyed  and  unsurveyed  public  lands. 

To  many  penniless  homeseekers  this  account  of  hun- 
dreds of  thousands  of  acres  of  land,  surveyed  and  un- 
surveyed, open  for  public  entry  as  homesteads,  may  seem 
almost  like  a  fairy  tale,  but  they  must  not  be  allured  by 
its  vast  seeming.  There  is  practically  little  or  no  acreage 
unoccupied  that  can  be  profitably  taken  up  by  the  home- 
steader who  is  without  considerable  ready  cash.  Water 
is  essential  for  personal,  stock,  and  irrigation  purposes, 
and  essential  in  large  quantities,  far  beyond  the  capacity 
of  any  ordinary  man,  or  small  body  of  men,  to  acquire. 
It  is  only  by  large  and  wisely  directed  cooperative  en- 
deavour, or  by  state  and  federal  assistance  that  the  major 
portion  of  this  land  can  be  put  under  irrigation  systems 
so  that  the  homesteader  can  live  upon  it. 

A  fairly  good  system  of  publicity  is  maintained  by 
the  State  for  the  disposal  of  its  public  lands,  and  a 
letter  addressed  to  the  State  Land  Office,  Sante  Fe,  for 
latest  and  fullest  particulars  is  sure  to  receive  careful 
attention. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Bancroft,  Hubert  Howe:     Arizona  and  New  Mexico. 

Bandelier,  Adolf  F. :     The  Delight  Makers,  etc.,  etc. 

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Blackmar,  F.  W. :     Spanish  Institutions  of  the  Southwest. 

Bolton,  Eugene  W. :     Spanish  Explorations  of  the  Southwest,  etc. 

Cushing,  Frank  Hamilton:  Zuni  Folk  Tales;  Monographs  in 
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ports of  School  of  American  Archaeology. 

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Kendall,  G.  W. :     Narrative  of  the  Texas-Santa  Fe  Expedition. 

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Pattie,  James  O. :     Personal  Narrative. 

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hood ;  etc. 

Read,  Benjamin  M. :  Illustrated  History  of  New  Mexico  (both 
in   Spanish   and  English)  ;   etc. 

Rhodes,  Eugene  Manlove:  Good  Men  and  True:  West  is  West, 
etc. 

Ryan,  Marah  Ellis:     The  Flute  of  the  Gods;  etc. 

Saunders,  C.  S.  and  E.  H. :     Indians  of  the  Terraced  Houses. 

Stevenson,  Matilda  Coxe:  Monographs  on  the  Zia,  the  Zunis,  etc., 
in  Reports  of  Bureau  of  American  Ethnology. 

461 


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Winship,   George   Parker:     Translation  of   Castafieda's    Narrative 

of  Coronado's  Expedition   (in  Bureau  of  Ethnology  Reports). 


INDEX 


Titles  of  Chapters  are  in  Italics. 


Abe.t,  J.  W.,  352. 
Abiquiu  Peak,  309. 
Acoma,  the  City  of  the  Cliffs, 

3,  8,  11,  13,  32,  124  et  seq. 
Adventures  at  Zuni,  My,  51  et 

seq. 
Agriculture,  College  of,  427. 

Indian,    188. 
Ahayuta,  65. 
Ah-co,  139. 
Akin,   Louis,  387. 
Alamagordo  White  Sands,  xiii. 
Alamo  Hueco  Mountains,  318. 
Albuquerque,    the    Commercial 

Metropolis,  xii,  450  et  seq. 
Altars,  206. 

Altitudes  of  New  Mexico,  459. 
Alvarado,    139. 
Amarillo,  Tierra,  308. 
American  Archaeology,  School 

of,  6,  247,  266. 
American  Passion  Play,  269  et 

seq. 
Among  the  Witches,  80  et  seq. 
Anaia  Alimazan,  46. 
Animas   Mountains,  316. 
Annexation    of    New    Mexico, 

xx. 
Antiquities    of    New    Mexico, 

266  et  seq. 
Antithesis,    N.    M.,    Land    of, 

viii. 
Antonio,     Fray     Salvador     de 

San,  13. 
Apache    Indians,    xi,    xvii,    13, 

260. 
Architecture,    Spanish    Mission 

and   Other,   3. 
Architecture,    Native    of    New 

Mexico,  244  et  seq. 
Civic,   247. 


463 


Tampering  with,  250. 

Archuleta,  Juan  de,  Inscrip.,  44. 

Art,  Influence  of  New  Mexico 
Upon,  6,  373  et  seq. 

Art  Museum  at  Santa  Fe,  256, 
428  et  seq. 

Arts  and  Industries  of  the  In- 
dians, 186  et  seq. 

Augustin    de    Ynojos,    Inscrip., 

44- 
Austin,    Mary,    229. 
Autograph  Album,  The  World's 

Greatest,  34   et  seq. 

B 
Bailey,    Florence    Merriam, 

303,  4io. 
Bailey,  Vernon,  303,  343. 
Bancroft,   H.   H.,  21. 
Bandelier,  Adolf,  xiii,  1,  21,  28, 

349- 
Barba,  Martin,  Inscrip.,  44. 
Barreiro,   Antonio,    351. 
Barrio-Nuevo,    Francisco,    258. 
Basconzelos,    Inscrip.,    38. 
Basketry,  Indian,  187. 
Bean    Festivals,   6. 
Beaubien,   Carlos,  258. 
Beltran,  Bernaldino,  Fray,  9. 
Benavides,   Memorial  of   Fray, 

349- 
Benedict,  Kirby,  161. 
Ben  Hur,  xi,  3,  6. 
Bernalillo,    18. 
Bibliography,    461. 
Bigelow,  John,   352. 
Big  Hatchet  Mountains,  316. 
Biglow,   Dr.   J.   M.,   341. 
Bird  Life  of  New  Mexico,  334 

et  seq. 
Black   Mountains,   313. 
Blanket   Weaving,   xviii. 


464 


Index 


Blumenschein,   E.  L.,  374,  384. 
Bolton,    Herbert    Eugene,    350. 
Botany,  340  et  seq. 
Bow,   Priesthood  of  the,  66. 
Boyd,  David  Ross,  423. 
Brinkerhoff,    Henry    R.,    357. 
Building,  Indian,  186. 
Building  of  Missions,  etc.,  xvi. 
Burlin,  Natalie  Curtis,  131,  221 

et  seq. 
Burro    Mountains,    313. 


Cabeza  de  Vaca,  xi,  8,  348. 
Cactus  Growths,  345. 
Cadman,    Charles    Wakefield, 

225. 
Carleton,   Gen.,  xi. 
Carlsbad  Project,  5,  448. 
Carrizo  Mountains,  311. 
Carson,   Kit,   257. 
Carson  National  Forest,  329. 
Castenada,  139,  348. 
Cathedral  of   the   Desert,   256, 

428    et   seq. 
Cebolleta    Mountains,   309. 
Cerro  Mountains,  318. 
Chaco  Canyon,  246. 
Chamita,  11. 

Chamuscado's    Expedition,    8. 
Chivato,    Sierra,    309. 
Chunda,  356. 
Chupadero   Mesa,   318. 
Churches,  Mission,  245  et  seq. 
Chusca   Mountains,    310. 
Cibola,  Seven  Cities  of,  x,  51. 
Cienequilla,  Mesa  of,  15. 
City  of  the  Cliffs,  Acoma,  124 

et  seq. 
Civic    Architecture    of    New 

Mexico,    247. 
Cliff  Dwellings,   I,   266  et  seq. 
Climate,  4,  341  et  seq. 
Cloudcroft,    320,    410. 
Cochiti,  13,  15. 

Colors,  Land  of  High,  ix,  xiii. 
Commerce  of  the  Prairies,  351. 
Continence,  214. 
Contrasts,  Land  of,  xii. 
Controversy,    Land    of,    x. 
Cooke,  George,  352. 
Cooke,    Philip,  81. 
Corn  Dance  Songs,  232. 
Corn  Grinding  Songs,  221. 
Coronado,  x,  xiv,  8,  51,  139,  258. 


Coronado  National  Forest,  333. 
Counties  of  New  Mexico,  459. 
County  Seats  of  New  Mexico, 
_     459- 

Couse,  E.  Irving,  384. 
Cowboy  Songs,  366. 
Creation    Myths    of    North 

America,  217. 
Cronyn,  George  W.,  229. 
Cruzate,  Gov.,  12,  13. 
Cubero,  Gov.,  18. 
Culebra  Peak,  304. 
Culture,  Pueblo,  xiii. 
Curtin,  Jeremiah,  217. 
Curtis    (Burlin),    Natalie,    131, 

221   et  seq. 
Cushing,    Lieut.    F.    H.,    51    et 

seq.,  98  et  seq.,  189,  358. 
Cuyamunge,   16. 

D 
Darley,  Rev.  A.  M.,  274. 
Datil  Mountains,  310,  313. 

National  Forest,  325. 
Davis,  A.  H.,  446. 
Davis,  W.   H.  H,  6,  246,  354, 

417. 
Defouri,  Rev.  J.  H.,  364. 
Delight  Makers,  viii. 

Why  the  Land  of  the,  I   et 

seq. 
Deming,  5. 
Desert  Etchings,  392. 
Desert,  Lone  Tree  of  the,  393. 
DeWolf,   Wallace,   392  et  seq. 
Diablo    Mountains,   313. 
Diego  de  Vargas,  xvii,  12. 
Discovery  of  Zuni,  xv. 
Disease,  Healing  of,  215. 
Dog  Mountains,   318. 
Doniphan's  Expedition,  353. 
Dunton,  W.  Herbert,  385. 
Durango,    Bishop   of,   42. 
Duro,  Fernandez,  21. 
Dutton,  Clarence  E.,  347. 


Education  in  New  Mexico,  414 

et  seq. 
Elephant  Butte  Dam,  5. 
Elevations   of   New   Mexico, 

302. 
El  Gringo,  246,  354,  417. 
Elizaecochea,  Don  Martin,  In- 

scrip.,  41. 


Index 


465 


El  Morro,  Inscription  Rock, 
34  et  seq. 

El  Paso,  30. 

Emory,  W.  H.,  352. 

Enchanted  Mesa,  3,  125  et  seq., 
172,   178  et  seq. 

Epic,  Homeric,  of  New  Mex- 
ico, 20  et  seq. 

Espejo,   5,  9,   139. 

Estancia  Valley,  6. 

Etchings  by  W.  DeWolf,  329 
et  seq. 

Experiences  in  New  Mexico,  v. 

Explorations  and  Subjugations 
of  New  Mexico,  8  et  seq. 

Explorations,    unauthorized,   9. 


Famine,   17. 

Farwell,  Arthur,  222. 

Fasting,  214. 

Fergusson,  Delegate,  419. 

Fetiches,    Hunting,   98    et   seq. 

Fewkes,  Dr.  Jesse  Walter,  98. 

Fiesta  at  Taos,  260. 

Fight  over  Statehood,  vii. 

Figueredo,  Fray,  40. 

Fillmore,  John  Comfort,  222. 

Flagellantes,   Order  of,   269  et 
seq. 

Flight  of  Spaniards  from  New 
Mexico,  xvii. 

Flood,  Zuni  Legend  of,  72. 

Flora  of  New  Mexico,  340  et 
seq. 

Flute  of  the  Gods,  1. 

Forests  of  New  Mexico,  Na- 
tional, 322  et  seq. 

Foreword,  By  Way  of,  v  et  seq. 

Franciscan     Missions,     248     et 
seq.,  266. 
Zeal  of,  xvi,  9. 

Fraternities,  Zuni,  203. 


Galisteo,  14. 

Game  Protective  Assn.  of  New 

Mexico,  317,  338. 
Garsya,  Juan,   Inscrip.,  44. 
Geological  Terms,  347. 
Ghost   Dance   of   Zunis,   225. 
Gila   Mountains,  314. 

National   Forest,  314,   326. 

River,   314. 
Goat  Peak,  309. 


Goats,  4. 

Goldman,  E.  A.,  315. 

Gonzales,  Inscrip.,  38. 

Graham,   D.   D.,  89. 

Gran  Quivera,  xi. 

Grants,   Spanish  and  Mexican, 

xviii. 
Gray,  E.  D.  McQueen,  422. 
Great  Pueblo   Rebellion   of 

1680,  24  et  seq. 
Gregg,  Josiah,  351. 
Griffin,    Walter    Burleigh,    423. 
Grunn,  Homer,  240. 
Guadalupe  Mountains,  320. 
Gunn,  John,  of  Taos,  263. 
Gunn,  John  M.,  of  Laguna,  368. 

H 

Hachita  Valley,  318. 
Harwood,  Burt,  Mr.  and  Mrs., 

387. 
Harwood,  Rev.  Thomas,  364. 
Hatchet  Mountains,   Big,  316. 
Health  in  New  Mexico,  xx,  4. 
Heart  of  the  Well  Country, 455. 
Henderson,  Miss  Rose,  370. 
Herrick,  Dr.  C.  L.,  421. 
Hewett,   Dr.  Edgar  L.,  244  et 

seq.,  266. 
Higgins,  Victor,  388. 
Hirsch,  Lee  F.,  391. 
Hodge,  F.  W,  45,  349- 
Homeric  Epic  of  New  Mexico, 

20  et  seq. 
Hondo  Project,  450. 
Hopi,  13. 

Hough,   Walter,    140. 
Hughes,  John  T.,  353. 
Humano,    10. 

Hunting  with  Indians, $8  et  seq. 
Hurtado,  Juan  P.,  Inscrip.,  47. 
Hurtado,    Ramon    P.,    Inscrip., 

47- 


Illiteracy  in  New  Mexico,  xii. 
Indians,  ix,  2,  3,  8,  9,  17. 

Arts  and  Industries  of   the, 
186  et  seq. 

Etiquette,  210. 
Rebellion,  xvi. 

Religion  of  the,  195  et  seq. 

Songs  and  Music,  220  et  seq. 

Weavers,   187. 


466 


Index 


Influence  of  New  Mexico  upon 
Art,  373  et  seq. 
Literature,  347  ct  seq. 
Inman,  Col.  W.  H.,  352. 
Inscription  Rock,  12,  34  et  seq. 
Irrigation    in  New  Mexico,   5, 
187,  444  et  seq. 

J 
Jemez,    16,  32. 

Mountains,  309. 
Jesus  Lopez,  Fray  Mariano  do, 

159- 
jicarilla  Mountains,  320. 
Johnston,  Capt.  A.  R.,  352. 
Jornada  del  Muerta,  340. 
Joullin,   Lucille,  399. 
Juan  de  Onate,  8,  10. 

Establishes    San   Juan,    11. 

Inscription,    37. 

Trip  to  South  Sea,  12. 
Juan  Jesus,  Fray,  Murdered,  32. 
Juillard,  Geo.  J.,  Rev.,  124,  165. 
Judson,  William   Lees,  401. 
Juparelo,  37. 

K 
Katzimo,  the  Enchanted  Mesa, 

3,  178  et  seq. 
Keakokshi  Dance,  75. 
Kearny,  Gen.   S.  W,  xvii,  xx. 
Kendall,  George  W.,  351. 
Kern,  R.  H.,  34,  246. 


Ladd,  Rev.  Horatio  O.,  356. 

Laguna,   124,   156. 

Lamy,  Bishop,  416. 

Lands,  Public,  458. 

Lava  Beds,  xiii,  2. 

Leading   Facts   of    New    Mex- 
ican History,  363. 

Leopoldo,  Aldo,  334. 

Letrado,  Padre,  45. 

Lewis,  34. 

Levya,    10. 

Libbey,  Prof.  W.,  3,  173. 

Lieurance,    Thurlow,    221    et 
seq. 

Life    Zones    of    New    Mexico, 

303- 
Lincoln  National  Forest,  327. 
Literary  Colony,  6. 
Literature,    Influence    of    New 

Mexico  on,  6,  347  et  seq. 


Little  Elk  Mountains,  313. 
Localities  of  Plants  from  New 

Mexico,  343. 
Lorenzo,  Tata,  169. 
Love  Songs,   Indian,  237. 
Lucero,  Antonio,  417. 
Lujan,  Inscrip.,  45. 
Lummis,  C.  F.,  3,  6,  23,  44,  95, 

126,    145,   178  ct  seq.,   274, 

347  et  seq.,  450. 

M 

Maasilima,  65. 
Magdalena  Mountains,  315. 
Maldonado,  Fray  Lucas,  151. 
Man  Who  Married  the  Moon, 

359- 

Manzano  Mountains,  318. 
National  Forest,  330. 

Marcos  de  Nizza,  xv,  348. 

Marcy,  Capt.  R.  B.,  353. 

Maria,  Fray  Santa,  Murdered, 
8. 

Markham,  Edwin,  xxi. 

Martinez,  Fray,  10,  143. 

Martinez,  Gov.,  43. 

Martinez,  Padre,  258. 

Massacres   of    Priests,   xvi. 

Matthews,   Washington,  213, 
357. 

Maude,  F.  H.,  65. 

Maxwell,    Lucien    B.,   258. 

Mazon,   Leopoldo,   52. 

Medicine,  Good  and  Bad,  211. 

Medicine  Men,  211. 

Melita  the  Witch,  91. 

Menaul,  John,  369. 

Mesa  Black,  15. 

Mesa  Encantada,  or  the  En- 
chanted Mesa,  x,  125  et 
seq.,  172,  178  et  seq. 

Mesa,  What  Is  a?  347. 

Mesilla,  5. 

Mexican  Belief  in  Witches,  95. 
Life,  ix. 
Rebellion   of    1847,  258. 

Military  Institute,  425. 

Military  Occupation  of  New 
Mexico,   363. 

Miller,    James,    175. 

Mimbres    Mountains,    313. 
Valley,   5. 

Mines,  5,  9. 

State  School  of,  5,  426. 

Mission  Architecture,  3. 


Index 


467 


Mission  Churches,  245  et  scq., 

266  et  seq. 
Mogollon  Mountains,  310,  313, 

315- 
Mora  Ceballos,  Gov.,  46. 
Morro,  El,  42  et  seq. 
Mosaics,   Sand,  205. 
Mother-in-Law  Taboo,  214. 
Mountains   of  New  Mexico, 

viii,  302  et  seq. 
Museum  of  Art,  Santa  Fe,  256, 

428  et  seq. 
Music,  Acoma,    132. 

Indian,  220  et  seq. 
Mythology,    207. 

N 
Nah-nee-tah,  357. 
Naiuchi,  88,  206. 
National  Forests  of  New  Mex- 
ico, 322  et  seq. 
Native    Architecture    of    New 

Mexico,  244  et  seq. 
Nature  Worship,  201. 
Navaho    Country,    34. 
Indians,   xi,   xvii,  311. 
Legends,  357. 
Night    Chant,    357. 
New  Mexico,  Historic  Impor- 
tance of,  xiv. 
Influence  on  Art  and  Liter- 
ature, 6. 
Newspaper,  First,  258. 
Nick,  Zuni,  Tried   for  Witch- 
craft, 86. 
Nieto-Silva,  Gov.,  39,  40. 
Notes   of    Military   Reconnais- 
sance, 352. 

O 
Oak  Spring  Mountains,  313. 
Onate,  Juan  de,  8,   10,   14,  21, 
140,  259,  349. 
Trip   to    South    Sea,    12,    37. 
Otermin,  Gov.,  xvii,  12,  29,  33. 


Pacification  of  New  Mexico,  14. 
Pahos,  207. 
Painters,  Artists,  xii. 
Paintings,  Sand,  205. 
Parke's  Exploration,  341. 
Paso  y  Troncoso,  21. 
Passion   Play,    The   American, 
269  et  seq. 


Path  of  the  Rainbow,  229. 
Paullin,  L.  R.  E.,  418. 
Pearson,  Kate  Terry,  393. 
Pecos  Baldy,  305. 

Indians,  15. 

River,  5. 

Valley,  320. 
Pelado  Peak,  309. 
Peloncillo  Mountains,  316. 
Penitentes,   viii,   3,   262,   269   et 
seq. 

Officers  of  the,  277  et  seq. 
Perea,   Custodian,  38. 
Perez,  Col.  Albino,  415. 
Personification  of  Nature,  201. 
Peters,  Dr.,  455. 
Phillips,   Bert,  374,  383. 
Physical    Culture    Among    In- 
dians,   199. 
Pike,  Albert,  351. 
Pike,  Zebulon,  349. 
Pino,    P.    B.,  351. 
Pinyon    Mountains,   310. 
Places,  Land  of  High,  ix. 
Playground,  New  Mexico,  the 

Nation's,  xx,  409  et  seq. 
Poco  Tiempo,  Land  of,  359. 
Pollen,  207. 

Pope's  Expedition,  341. 
Pope,    Rebellion    of,   xvi,   2    ei 

seq. 
Population    of    New    Mexico, 

458  et  seq. 
Pottery,  Indian,  189. 
Powell,  J.  W.,  51. 
Price,  Col.  Sterling,  258. 
Priests,   Massacre   of    Spanish, 
xxi. 

Of  the  Sacred  Bow,  66. 
Prince,    L.    Bradford,    Gov., 

268,  355- 
Prince,  Mrs.,  352. 
Public  Lands  of  New  Mexico, 

455- 
Pueblos,   Land  of  the,  355. 

Of  the  Rio  Grande,  Taos  and, 
257  et  seq. 

Rebellion  of  1680,  24  et  seq. 

Q 

Quiros,  Fray  Cristobal  de,  43. 

R 
Races  at  Taos,  261. 
Rainbow,  Path  of  the,  229. 


468 


Index 


Rain  Dance  of  Zunis,  222. 
Ramirez,  Fray  Juan,  151. 
Read,  Benj.  M.,  and  His  His- 
tory of  New  Mexico,   143, 

355,  364. 
Rebellion  of  1680,  xvi,  24  et  seq. 
Of  Indians,  14,  153. 
Of  Mexicans  in  1847,  258. 
Reclamation  Service,  6. 
Reclaiming  the  Arid  West,  447. 
Religion  of  the  Indians,  195  et 

seq. 
Religious    Zeal    of    Spaniards, 

xvi. 
Rhodes,  Eugene  Manlove,  365. 
Rio  Grande,  5,  444. 
Rito  de  Los  Frijoles,  1. 
Rocky    Mountain     Camp     Co., 

408. 
Roque,  Fray,  40,  41. 
Roswell,  5. 

Ruins  on  El  Morro,  35,  48. 
Ryan,    Marah   Ellis,   3. 


Sacramento  Mountains,  320. 

Salpointe,  Archb.   J.  B.,  364. 

Sanctuario,  xi. 

Sand  Paintings,  205. 

San  Andres  Mountains,  318. 

Sandia   Mountains,   318. 

San   Esteban,   Church   of,    153. 

Fiesta   of,   162  et  seq. 
San  Felipe,   14,   15. 
San  Francisco  Mountains,  313. 
San  Geronimo,   Fiesta  of,  259. 
San  Ildefonso,   15,  25. 
San  Jose,  Picture  of,  155. 
San  Juan  de  los  Caballeros,  11, 

25,  37- 
San  Juan  Mountains,  308. 
San  Lorenzo,  31. 
San  Luis  Mountains,  316. 
San  Mateo  Mountains,  xi,  309, 

315- 

Sangre    de    Cristo    Mountains, 

303. 
Santa  Ana,   15,  16. 
Santa  Fe,  6,  13,  16,  25,  28,  351. 
Santa  Fe  National  Forest,  331. 
Santa  Fe  Trail,  352. 
Santo    Domingo,    11,    13,    17. 
Sauerwin,  Frank,  387. 
Schat-Chen,  368. 
Sedgewick,  Mount,  372. 


Seeing    New   Mexico,   Ancient 
and  Modern  Methods,  403 
et  seq. 
Shamans,  211. 
Sharp,  J.  H.,  374. 
Sheep,  4. 
Shipapu,  208. 

Sierra  Blanca  Mountains,  320. 
Sierra  Chivato,  309. 
Sierra  Oscuro,  318. 
Silva  Nieto,  Gov.,  Inscrip.,  39, 

40. 
Simpson,  Lieut.  J.  H.,  34,  353. 
Snake  Dance  at  Acoma,  140. 
Socorro,  5,  426. 
Songs  and  Music,  Indian,  220 

et  seq. 
Songs,  Ceremonial,  211. 
Spaniards   Slain,  29. 
Spanish  Archives  of  New  Mex- 
ico, 364. 
Spanish      Conquest     of      New 

Mexico,  354. 
Springer,     Hon.     Frank,     xix, 

428  et  seq. 
Stanley,  Paul  C,  343. 
Statehood,  Fight  over,  vii. 
Stevenson,  Col.  James,  358. 
Stevenson,  Mrs.  Matilda  Coxe, 
71,  80  et  seq.,   193,  203   et 
seq.,  358. 
St.    Joseph's    Sanitorium,    455. 
St.   Stephen,   Fiesta  of,    162  et 

seq. 
St.  Vrain,  Cerain,  258. 
Stockmen,    4. 
Stover,  E.  S.,  421. 
Sunrise  Call  of  Zunis,  227. 
Superstitious  Life,  ix. 
Surprises  of  New  Mexico,  viii. 
Symbolism  of  Indians,  207. 
Symons,  Gardner,  170. 


Taboos,  Indian,  213. 
Taiyoallane,  65. 
Tanos  Indians,  14. 
Taos,  xiii,  3,  6,  16,  26. 

And  the  Pueblos  of  the  Rio 
Grande,  257  et  seq. 

Rancho  de,  263. 

San  Fernando  de,  262. 

Society  of  Artists,  373  et  seq. 

Peak,  304. 
Tapia,  Pedro  de,  14, 


Index 


469 


Taylor,  Mount,  xi,  309. 
Tehuas   Indians,   15. 
Temperatures,  342. 
Terms,  Geological,  347. 
Texas-Santa  Fe  Expedition,  xi, 

351- 
Tierra  Amarillo,  308. 
Tight,  Pres.  W.  G.,  421. 
Topographical  Diversity,  340. 
Tramp   Across   Continent,  359. 
Trees,  New  Mexico,  viii. 
Troyer,  Carlos,  221. 
Truchas  Peak,  304. 
Tsnahey,  Gov.  of  Zuni,  62,  86. 
Tucson  Mountains,  313. 
Tucumcari,  x. 
Tularosa  Mountains,  313. 
Tupatu,  13. 

Tuyo,  the  Black  Mesa,  15. 
Twitchell,   Col.   Ralph   E,   355 

et  seq. 


U 
Ufer,   Walter,   388. 
Unahikah,   Shrine  of,  67. 
University  of  New  Mexico,  421 

et  seq. 
Urribarri,  Juan  de,  44. 


V 
Vargas,  Diego  de,  xvii,  12.  13, 
16,  17,  18,  19,  33,  153.  259. 
Vargas,    Inscrip.,  43. 
Verdadero,   Relacion,   38. 
Vierra,  Carlos,  245  et  seq.,  401. 
Villagra's  Epic,  3,  20. 
Villagra  at  Acoma,  144  et  seq. 
Vogt,  Evon  Z.,  50. 


W 
Wallace,  Lew,  xi,  3,  6,  355. 
Wallace,   Susan  E.,  355. 
Washington,  Lieut.-Col.  J.  M., 

34- 

Weavers,  Indian,  186. 

Wemahe,  98  et  seq.,  193. 

Wendell,  Barrett,  366. 

Wewha,    63,    91. 

Wheeler  Peak,  302. 

Whipple,   Lieut.,  341. 

White   Mountains,  313. 

Whittin  Hall,  418. 

Why  "  the  Land  of  the  Delight- 
Makers,"  1  et  seq. 

Winship,    George    Parker,    349. 

Wishzenus,  Dr.  A.,  340. 

Witches,  Among  the,  80  et  seq. 

Withrow,  Eva  Almond,  400. 

Wooton,  E.  O.,  343. 

Words,  Significance  of  Indian, 

233- 
Worship,  Indian,  195  et  seq. 
Wright,  Charles,  341. 

Z 
Zaldivar,  Juan  de,  11,  142. 
Zaldivar,  Vicente  de,  3,  lis  143. 
Zamora,  Francisco  de,  259. 
Zia,  14,  15,  16. 
Zones,  Life  and  Crop,  in  New 

Mexico,  303. 
Zuni,  13,  32,  43,  44,  51  et  seq., 
203  et  seq. 
Child  Life  in,  358. 
Discovery  of,  xv. 
Food  Stuffs,  359. 
Lullaby,  235. 
Mountains,  309. 
My  Adventures  at,  51  et  seq. 
Zutucapan,   141, 


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